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20 July plot

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="List_of_assassination_attempts_on_Adolf_Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="List of assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler">List of assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">20 July plot</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="Assassination_attempts_on_Adolf_Hitler" title="Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler">Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler</a> and <a href="German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a>, <a href="Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a>, and <a href="Bruno_Loerzer" title="Bruno Loerzer">Bruno Loerzer</a> surveying the damaged conference room</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">Coup d'état</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Locations</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline;" class="location">Several, including <a href="Wolf's_Lair" title="Wolf's Lair">Wolf's Lair</a>, <a href="East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">

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</style><a class="external text" href="geo:54.080555555555556,21.49638888888889">54°04′50″N 21°29′47″E / 54.08056°N 21.49639°E / 54.08056; 21.49639</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="location">and <a href="Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Objective</th><td class="infobox-data"><div><ul><li>Assassinate <a href="Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li><li>Ensure <a href="Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">continuity of government</a></li><li>Make peace with the Western <a href="Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">20 July 1944 (1944-07-20)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Executed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="Friedrich_Olbricht" title="Friedrich Olbricht">Friedrich Olbricht</a></li><li><a href="Erwin_von_Witzleben" title="Erwin von Witzleben">Erwin von Witzleben</a></li><li><a href="Claus_von_Stauffenberg" title="Claus von Stauffenberg">Claus von Stauffenberg</a></li><li><a href="List_of_members_of_the_20_July_plot" title="List of members of the 20 July plot">among others…</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data"><div><ul><li>Hitler survives with minor injuries</li><li>Military coup fails within 5 hours</li><li>7,000 arrested; 4,980 executed, including 200 conspirators</li><li>Traditional military salute fully replaced by <a href="Nazi_salute" title="Nazi salute">Nazi salute</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Casualties</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="List_of_people_killed_or_wounded_in_the_20_July_plot" title="List of people killed or wounded in the 20 July plot">4 killed, 20 injured</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1291884410">

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</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:240px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:240px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:240px"><div class="od notheme" style="top:21.812%;left:90.375%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div>Wolf's Lair</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">The location of the assassination attempt on Hitler</div></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

The 20 July plot, sometimes referred to as Operation Valkyrie, was a failed attempt to assassinate <a href="Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, the chancellor of <a href="Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, and overthrow the <a href="Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi</a> regime on 20 July 1944. The plotters were part of the <a href="German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">German resistance</a>, mainly composed of <a href="Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> officers.<a href="#cite_note-Kahn-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-AxisCriminality-2">[2]</a> The leader of the conspiracy, <a href="Claus_von_Stauffenberg" title="Claus von Stauffenberg">Claus von Stauffenberg</a>, tried to kill Hitler by detonating an explosive hidden in a briefcase. However, due to the location of the bomb at the time of detonation, the blast only dealt Hitler minor injuries. The planners' subsequent coup attempt also failed and resulted in a purge of the Wehrmacht.

As early as 1938, German military officers had <a href="Oster_conspiracy" title="Oster conspiracy">plotted to overthrow Hitler</a>, but indecisive leadership and the pace of global events stymied action. Plotters gained a sense of urgency in 1943 after Germany lost the <a href="Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a> and <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> forces began to push towards Germany. Under the leadership of Stauffenberg, plotters tried to assassinate Hitler at least five different times in 1943 and 1944. With the Nazi <a href="Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a>, the <a href="Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>, closing in on the plotters, a final attempt was organised in July 1944. Stauffenberg personally took a briefcase containing a block of plastic explosive to a conference in the <a href="Wolf's_Lair" title="Wolf's Lair">Wolf's Lair</a>. The explosives were armed and placed next to Hitler, but it appears they were moved unwittingly at the last moment behind a table leg by <a href="Heinz_Brandt" title="Heinz Brandt">Heinz Brandt</a>, inadvertently saving Hitler's life. When the bomb detonated, it killed Brandt and two others, while the rest of the room's occupants were injured, one of whom, <a href="Rudolf_Schmundt" title="Rudolf Schmundt">Rudolf Schmundt</a>, later died from his injuries. Hitler's trousers were singed by the blast, and he suffered a perforated eardrum and <a href="Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">conjunctivitis</a>, but was otherwise unharmed.

The plotters, unaware of their failure, then attempted a <a href="Coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>. A few hours after the blast, the conspiracy used Wehrmacht units to take control of several cities, including Berlin, right after giving them disinformation on the intention of the orders they were given. This part of the coup d'état attempt is referred to by the name "<a href="Operation_Valkyrie" title="Operation Valkyrie">Operation Valkyrie</a>", which also has become associated with the entire event.<a href="#cite_note-Valkyrie-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Within hours, the Nazi regime had reasserted its control of Germany. A few members of the conspiracy, including Stauffenberg, were <a href="Execution_by_firing_squad" title="Execution by firing squad">executed by firing squad</a> the same night. In the months after the coup d'état attempt, the Gestapo arrested more than 7,000 people, 4,980 of whom were executed. Roughly 200 conspirators were executed.<a href="#cite_note-shirer1393-5">[5]</a>

The apparent aim of the coup d'état attempt was to wrest political control of Germany and its armed forces from the <a href="Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> (including the <a href="Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a>) and to make peace with the Western <a href="Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> as soon as possible. The details of the conspirators' peace initiatives remain unknown,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> but they would have included unrealistic demands for the confirmation of Germany's extensive annexations of European territory.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996608–609-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

Since 1938 there had been groups plotting an overthrow of some kind within the <a href="German_Army_(Wehrmacht)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (Wehrmacht)">German Army</a> and in the German <a href="Abwehr" title="Abwehr">Military Intelligence Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Enzensberger_2008-11">[11]</a> Early leaders of these plots included Major General <a href="Hans_Oster" title="Hans Oster">Hans Oster</a>, the deputy head of the Military Intelligence Office; Colonel General <a href="Ludwig_Beck" title="Ludwig Beck">Ludwig Beck</a>, a former Chief of Staff of the <a href="Oberkommando_des_Heeres" title="Oberkommando des Heeres">German Army High Command</a> (OKH); and Field Marshal <a href="Erwin_von_Witzleben" title="Erwin von Witzleben">Erwin von Witzleben</a>, a former commander of the <a href="1st_Army_(Wehrmacht)" title="1st Army (Wehrmacht)">German 1st Army</a> and the former <a href="Commander-in-Chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander-in-Chief">Commander-in-Chief</a> of the <a href="OB_West" title="OB West">German Army Command in the West</a>. They soon established contacts with several prominent civilians, including <a href="Carl_Goerdeler" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Goerdeler">Carl Goerdeler</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> the former mayor of <a href="Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, and <a href="Helmuth_James_von_Moltke" title="Helmuth James von Moltke">Helmuth James von Moltke</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> the great-grandnephew of <a href="Moltke_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Moltke the Elder">Moltke the Elder</a>, hero of the <a href="Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>.

Groups of military plotters exchanged ideas with civilian, political, and intellectual resistance groups in the <a href="Kreisau_Circle" title="Kreisau Circle">Kreisauer Kreis</a> (which met at the <a href="Krzyzowa%2C_Swidnica_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Krzyzowa, Swidnica County">von Moltke estate in Kreisau</a>) and in other secret circles. Moltke was against killing Hitler; instead, he wanted him placed on trial. Moltke said, "we are all amateurs and would only bungle it". Moltke also believed killing Hitler would be hypocritical: Hitler and National Socialism had turned wrongdoing into a system, something which the resistance should avoid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946224-14">[14]</a>

Plans to stage an overthrow and prevent Hitler from launching a new world war were developed in 1938 and 1939, but were aborted because of the indecision of Army General <a href="Franz_Halder" title="Franz Halder">Franz Halder</a> and Field Marshal <a href="Walther_von_Brauchitsch" title="Walther von Brauchitsch">Walther von Brauchitsch</a>, and the failure of the Western powers to oppose Hitler's aggression until 1939.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

In 1942 a new conspiratorial group formed, led by Colonel <a href="Henning_von_Tresckow" title="Henning von Tresckow">Henning von Tresckow</a>, a member of Field Marshal <a href="Fedor_von_Bock" title="Fedor von Bock">Fedor von Bock</a>'s staff, who commanded Army Group Centre in <a href="Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>. Tresckow systematically recruited oppositionists into the Group's staff, making it the nerve centre of the army resistance. Little could be done against Hitler as he was heavily guarded, and none of the plotters could get near enough to him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226-16">[16]</a>

During 1942, Oster and Tresckow nevertheless succeeded in rebuilding an effective resistance network. Their most important recruit was General <a href="Friedrich_Olbricht" title="Friedrich Olbricht">Friedrich Olbricht</a>, head of the General Army Office headquarters at the <a href="Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a> in central Berlin, who controlled an independent system of communications to reserve units throughout Germany. Linking this asset to Tresckow's resistance group in Army Group Centre created a viable coup apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997188-17">[17]</a>

In late 1942 Tresckow and Olbricht formulated a plan to assassinate Hitler and stage an overthrow during Hitler's visit to the headquarters of Army Group Centre at <a href="Smolensk" title="Smolensk">Smolensk</a> in March 1943, by placing a bomb on his plane (<a href="Operation_Spark_(1941)" title="Operation Spark (1941)">Operation Spark</a>). The bomb failed to detonate, and a second attempt a week later with Hitler at an exhibition of captured Soviet weaponry in Berlin also failed.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> These failures demoralised the conspirators. During 1943 Tresckow tried without success to recruit senior army field commanders such as Field Marshal <a href="Erich_von_Manstein" title="Erich von Manstein">Erich von Manstein</a> and Field Marshal <a href="Gerd_von_Rundstedt" title="Gerd von Rundstedt">Gerd von Rundstedt</a>, to support a seizure of power. Tresckow, in particular, worked on his Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Centre, Field Marshal <a href="G%C3%BCnther_von_Kluge" title="Günther von Kluge">Günther von Kluge</a>, to persuade him to move against Hitler and at times succeeded in gaining his consent, only to find him indecisive at the last minute.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> However, despite their refusals, none of the Field Marshals reported their treasonous activities to the <a href="Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> or Hitler.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivation_and_goals">Motivation and goals</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opposition_to_Hitler_and_to_Nazi_policies">Opposition to Hitler and to Nazi policies</h4></div>

While the primary goal of the plotters was to remove Hitler from power, they did so for various reasons. The majority of the group behind the 20 July plot were conservative nationalists—idealists, but not necessarily of a democratic stripe.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Martin Borschat portrays their motivations as a matter of <a href="Aristocrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristocrat">aristocratic</a> resentment, writing that the plot was mainly carried out by <a href="Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">conservative</a> elites who were initially integrated by the Nazi government but during the war lost their influence and were concerned about regaining it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2015198-22">[22]</a> However, at least in Stauffenberg's case, the conviction that Nazi Germany's atrocities against civilians and prisoners of war were a dishonour to the nation and its military was likely a major motivating factor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2009b-23">[23]</a> Historian Judith Michel assesses the circle around the 20 July Group as a diverse and heterogeneous group that included <a href="Liberal_democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal democrat">liberal democrats</a>, conservatives, <a href="Social_democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Social democrat">social democrats</a>, authoritarian aristocrats, and even <a href="Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communists</a>. The common goal was to overthrow Hitler's regime and bring the war to a swift end.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> There is evidence of the plot encompassing a broad spectrum of plotters which included communists that April, before the attempted coup, Stauffenberg agreed to cooperate with the Operational Leadership of the <a href="KPD" class="mw-redirect" title="KPD">KPD</a> (Communist Party of Germany) remaining in Germany. Contacts were established through the Social Democrats Adolf Reichwein and Julius Leber.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Territorial_demands">Territorial demands</h4></div>

Among demands initially countenanced by the plotters for issue towards the Allies were such points as re-establishment of Germany's 1914 boundaries with <a href="Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> and <a href="Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and no reparations. Like most of the rest of German resistance, the 20 July plotters believed in the idea of <a href="Greater_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Germany">Greater Germany</a> and as a condition for peace demanded that the western allies recognise as a minimum the incorporation of <a href="Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>, <a href="Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>, and the annexation of Polish-inhabited territories that Germany ceded to Poland after 1918, with the restoration of some of the overseas colonies. They believed that Europe should be controlled under German hegemony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2015198–199-26">[26]</a>

The overall goals towards Poland were mixed within the plotters. Most of the plotters found it desirable to restore the old German borders of 1914, while others pointed out that the demands were unrealistic, and amendments had to be made.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Some like <a href="Friedrich-Werner_Graf_von_der_Schulenburg" title="Friedrich-Werner Graf von der Schulenburg">Friedrich-Werner Graf von der Schulenburg</a> even wanted all of Poland annexed to Germany.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

To Poland, which was fighting against Nazi Germany with both its army and government in exile, the territorial demands and traditional nationalistic visions of resistance were not much different from the racist policies of Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Stauffenberg, as one of the leaders of the plot, stated five years before the coup in 1939 during the <a href="Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland campaign</a>: "It is essential that we begin a systemic colonisation in Poland. But I have no fear that this will not occur."<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_vision_of_post-Hitler_Germany">Political vision of post-Hitler Germany</h4></div>

Many members of the plot had helped the Nazis to gain power and shared revisionist foreign policy goals pursued by Hitler, and even at the time of the plot were anti-democratic, hoping to replace Hitler with a conservative-authoritarian government involving aristocratic rule. They opposed popular legitimation or mass participation in governance of the state.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_program">Political program</h4></div>

The political program of the <a href="#planned_government">planned government</a> was outlined in a draft for a <a href="Government_policy_statement" title="Government policy statement">government policy statement</a>, consisting of twelve points:

<ol><li>Restoration of the <a href="Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, <a href="Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">independence of the courts</a>, protection of personal and property security, dissolution of <a href="Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">concentration camps</a>, prevention of <a href="Lynch_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynch law">lynch law</a>,</li>

<li>Combating corruption, restitution of <a href="Art_theft_and_looting_during_World_War_II" title="Art theft and looting during World War II">looted works of art</a>, ending the <a href="The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">persecution of Jews</a>, punishment of <a href="War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>,</li>

<li>Dissolution of the <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda" title="Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda">Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda</a> and an end to propaganda reporting on the course of the war,</li>

<li><a href="Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a>, a <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> mindset as the basis for policies, <a href="Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>,</li>

<li>Restoration of Christian education by parents</li>

<li>Reduction of <a href="Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, examination and possible punishment, dismissal or transfer of all officials appointed and promoted from 1 January 1933, especially <a href="Nazi_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi party">Nazi party</a> members</li>

<li>Transformation of the <a href="Provinces_of_Prussia" title="Provinces of Prussia">provinces of Prussia</a> and <a href="States_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="States of the Weimar Republic">states</a> into <a href="Reichsgau" title="Reichsgau">Reichsgaue</a>, <a href="Local_self-government" class="mw-redirect" title="Local self-government">local self-government</a> for the Reichsgaue, <a href="Districts_of_Germany" title="Districts of Germany">districts</a> and <a href="Municipalities_of_Germany" title="Municipalities of Germany">municipalities</a> under the supervision of <a href="Reichsstatthalter" title="Reichsstatthalter">Reichsstatthalter</a>,</li>

<li>Restoration of full <a href="Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a> after the war, protection of <a href="Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>, <a href="Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economic measures</a> only under conditions of war-related shortages,</li>

<li>Responsible and conscientious <a href="Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policy</a> in the hands of Reichsgaue and <a href="Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a></li>

<li>Ending national debt through tax increases and <a href="Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> policies, international agreement on debt repayment</li>

<li>Continuation of the war for defence purposes only,</li>

<li>Commencement of peace negotiations with the <a href="Western_Allies" title="Western Allies">Western Allies</a>, punishment of those Germans responsible for the <a href="Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planning_a_coup">Planning a coup</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_members_of_the_20_July_plot" title="List of members of the 20 July plot">List of members of the 20 July plot</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Von_Stauffenberg_joins">Von Stauffenberg joins</h3></div>

By mid-1943 the tide of war was turning decisively against Germany. The army plotters and their civilian allies became convinced that Hitler should be assassinated, so that a government acceptable to the western Allies could be formed, and a separate peace negotiated in time to prevent a Soviet invasion of Germany. In August 1943 Tresckow met, for the first time, a young staff officer named Lieutenant Colonel <a href="Claus_von_Stauffenberg" title="Claus von Stauffenberg">Claus von Stauffenberg</a>. Severely wounded in North Africa, Stauffenberg was a political conservative and zealous German nationalist.<a href="#cite_note-Valkyrie-3">[3]</a>

From early 1942, he had come to share two basic convictions with many military officers: that Germany was being led to disaster and that Hitler's removal from power was necessary. After the <a href="Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a> in December 1942, despite his religious scruples, he concluded that the Führer's assassination was a lesser moral evil than Hitler's remaining in power.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Stauffenberg brought a new tone of decisiveness to the ranks of the resistance movement. When Tresckow was assigned to the Eastern Front, Stauffenberg took charge of planning and executing the assassination attempt.

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Operation_Valkyrie" title="Operation Valkyrie">Operation Valkyrie</a></div>

Olbricht now put forward a new strategy for staging a coup against Hitler. The <a href="Replacement_Army" title="Replacement Army">Replacement Army</a> (Ersatzheer) had an operational plan called Operation Valkyrie, which was to be used in the event that the disruption caused by the Allied bombing of German cities would cause a breakdown in law and order, or an uprising by the millions of <a href="Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labourers from occupied countries</a> now being used in German factories. Olbricht suggested that this plan could be used to mobilise the Reserve Army for the purpose of the coup.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-35">[35]</a>

In August and September 1943, Tresckow drafted the "revised" Valkyrie plan and new supplementary orders. A secret declaration began with these words: "The Führer Adolf Hitler is dead! A treacherous group of party leaders has attempted to exploit the situation by attacking our embattled soldiers from the rear in order to seize power for themselves."<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Detailed instructions were written for occupation of government ministries in Berlin, <a href="Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>'s headquarters in East Prussia, radio stations and telephone offices, and other Nazi apparatus through military districts, and concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997219-37">[37]</a>

Previously, it was believed that Stauffenberg was mainly responsible for the Valkyrie plan, but documents recovered by the Soviet Union after the war and released in 2007 suggest that the plan was developed by Tresckow by autumn of 1943.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> All written information was handled by Tresckow's wife, Erika, and by <a href="Margarethe_von_Oven" title="Margarethe von Oven">Margarethe von Oven</a>, his secretary. Both women wore gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997220-39">[39]</a> On at least two other occasions Tresckow had tried to assassinate the Führer. The first plan was to shoot him during dinner at the army base camp, but this plan was aborted because it was widely believed that Hitler wore a bullet-proof vest. The conspirators also considered poisoning him, but this was not possible because his food was specially prepared and tasted. They concluded that a time bomb was the only option.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorhouse2007241-40">[40]</a>

Operation Valkyrie could only be put into effect by Hitler himself, or by General <a href="Friedrich_Fromm" title="Friedrich Fromm">Friedrich Fromm</a>, commander of the Reserve Army, so the latter had to be either won over to the conspiracy or in some way neutralised if the plan was to succeed.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Previous_failed_attempts">Previous failed attempts</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Operation_Spark_(1941)" title="Operation Spark (1941)">Operation Spark (1941)</a> and <a href="List_of_assassination_attempts_on_Adolf_Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="List of assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler">List of assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler</a></div>

During 1943 and early 1944 von Tresckow and von Stauffenberg organised at least five attempts to get one of the military conspirators near enough to Hitler, for long enough to kill him with hand grenades, bombs, or a revolver:

<ul><li>13 March 1943 by <a href="Henning_von_Tresckow#Plots_against_Hitler" title="Henning von Tresckow">von Tresckow</a><a href="#cite_note-Attempts-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Many_Attempts-42">[42]</a></li>

<li>21 March 1943 by <a href="Rudolf_Christoph_Freiherr_von_Gersdorff" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff">Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff</a><a href="#cite_note-Attempts-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Many_Attempts-42">[42]</a></li>

<li>late November 1943 by <a href="Axel_Freiherr_von_dem_Bussche-Streithorst" class="mw-redirect" title="Axel Freiherr von dem Bussche-Streithorst">Axel Freiherr von dem Bussche-Streithorst</a><a href="#cite_note-Many_Attempts-42">[42]</a></li>

<li>February 1944 by <a href="Ewald-Heinrich_von_Kleist-Schmenzin" title="Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin">Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin</a></li>

<li>11 March 1944 by <a href="Eberhard_von_Breitenbuch" title="Eberhard von Breitenbuch">Eberhard Freiherr von Breitenbuch</a></li></ul>

As the war situation deteriorated, Hitler no longer appeared in public and rarely visited Berlin. He spent most of his time at his headquarters at the <a href="Wolfsschanze" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfsschanze">Wolfsschanze</a> near <a href="Rastenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Rastenburg">Rastenburg</a> in <a href="East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, with occasional breaks at his <a href="Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavarian</a> mountain retreat <a href="Obersalzberg" title="Obersalzberg">Obersalzberg</a> near <a href="Berchtesgaden" title="Berchtesgaden">Berchtesgaden</a>. In both places, he was heavily guarded and rarely saw people he did not know or trust. Himmler and the Gestapo were increasingly suspicious of plots against Hitler and rightly suspected the officers of the General Staff, which was indeed the source of many conspiracies against him.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparations">Preparations</h3></div>

By the summer of 1944 the Gestapo was closing in on the conspirators. When Stauffenberg sent Tresckow a message through Lieutenant <a href="Heinrich_Graf_von_Lehndorff-Steinort" title="Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort">Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort</a> asking whether there was any reason for trying to assassinate Hitler given that no political purpose would be served, Tresckow's response was: "The assassination must be attempted, coûte que coûte [whatever the cost]. Even if it fails, we must take action in Berlin ⁠,⁠ ⁠for the practical purpose no longer matters; what matters now is that the German resistance movement must take the plunge before the eyes of the world and of history. Compared to that, nothing else matters."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997236-43">[43]</a>

Himmler had at least one conversation with a known oppositionist when, in August 1943, the <a href="Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> Finance Minister <a href="Johannes_Popitz" title="Johannes Popitz">Johannes Popitz</a>, who was involved in Goerdeler's network, came to see him and offered him the support of the opposition if he would make a move to displace Hitler and secure a negotiated end to the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997228-44">[44]</a> Nothing came of this meeting, but Popitz was not immediately arrested (although he was later executed towards the end of the war), and Himmler apparently did nothing to track down the resistance network which he knew was operating within the state bureaucracy. It is possible that Himmler, who by late 1943 knew that the war was unwinnable, allowed the plot to go ahead in the belief that if it succeeded he would be Hitler's successor, and could then bring about a peace settlement. Himmler himself would later in April of 1945 try to attempt to form a separate peace with the allies in order to remain in some sort of power, it was rejected as the allies continued to demand unconditional surrender, which would have been a block on any negotiated settlement.

Popitz was not alone in seeing Himmler as a potential ally. General von Bock advised Tresckow to seek his support, but there is no evidence that he did so. Goerdeler was apparently also in indirect contact with Himmler via a mutual acquaintance, <a href="Carl_Langbehn" title="Carl Langbehn">Carl Langbehn</a>. <a href="Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a>'s biographer <a href="Heinz_H%C3%B6hne" title="Heinz Höhne">Heinz Höhne</a> suggests that Canaris and Himmler were working together to bring about a change of regime, but this remains speculation.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

<li class="gallerycaption">Stauffenberg's co-conspirators in the plot</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Generaloberst" title="Generaloberst">Generaloberst</a> <a href="Ludwig_Beck" title="Ludwig Beck">Ludwig Beck</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="General_der_Nachrichtentruppe" title="General der Nachrichtentruppe">General der Nachrichtentruppe</a> <a href="Erich_Fellgiebel" title="Erich Fellgiebel">Erich Fellgiebel</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler" title="Carl Friedrich Goerdeler">Carl Friedrich Goerdeler</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Oberleutnant" title="Oberleutnant">Oberleutnant</a> <a href="Werner_von_Haeften" title="Werner von Haeften">Werner von Haeften</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="General_der_Infanterie" class="mw-redirect" title="General der Infanterie">General der Infanterie</a> <a href="Friedrich_Olbricht" title="Friedrich Olbricht">Friedrich Olbricht</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Generalmajor" title="Generalmajor">Generalmajor</a> <a href="Hans_Oster" title="Hans Oster">Hans Oster</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Oberst" title="Oberst">Oberst</a> <a href="Albrecht_Mertz_von_Quirnheim" title="Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim">Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Generalmajor" title="Generalmajor">Generalmajor</a> <a href="Henning_von_Tresckow" title="Henning von Tresckow">Henning von Tresckow</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="General_der_Artillerie" class="mw-redirect" title="General der Artillerie">General der Artillerie</a> <a href="Eduard_Wagner" title="Eduard Wagner">Eduard Wagner</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Generalfeldmarschall" title="Generalfeldmarschall">Generalfeldmarschall</a> <a href="Erwin_von_Witzleben" title="Erwin von Witzleben">Erwin von Witzleben</a></div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Countdown_to_Stauffenberg's_attempt">Countdown to Stauffenberg's attempt</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_week_of_July">First week of July</h3></div>

On Saturday 1 July 1944 Stauffenberg was appointed Chief of Staff to General <a href="Friedrich_Fromm" title="Friedrich Fromm">Friedrich Fromm</a> at the Reserve Army headquarters on Bendlerstraße in central Berlin. This position enabled Stauffenberg to attend Hitler's military conferences, either at the <a href="Wolfsschanze" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfsschanze">Wolfsschanze</a> in <a href="East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> or at <a href="Berchtesgaden" title="Berchtesgaden">Berchtesgaden</a>, and would thus give him an opportunity, perhaps the last that would present itself, to kill Hitler with a bomb or a pistol. Meanwhile, new key allies had been gained. These included General <a href="Carl-Heinrich_von_St%C3%BClpnagel" title="Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel">Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel</a>, the German military commander in France, who would take control in Paris when Hitler was killed, and it was hoped, negotiate an immediate <a href="Armistice" title="Armistice">armistice</a> with the invading Allied armies.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aborted_attempts">Aborted attempts</h3></div>

The plot was now fully prepared. On 7 July 1944 General <a href="Helmuth_Stieff" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmuth Stieff">Helmuth Stieff</a> was to kill Hitler at a display of new uniforms at <a href="Schloss_Klessheim" title="Schloss Klessheim">Klessheim castle</a> near <a href="Salzburg" title="Salzburg">Salzburg</a>. However, Stieff felt unable to kill Hitler. Stauffenberg now decided to do both, assassinate Hitler and to manage the plot in Berlin.

On 14 July Stauffenberg attended Hitler's conferences carrying a bomb in his briefcase, but because the conspirators had decided that Himmler and <a href="Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> should be killed simultaneously if the planned mobilisation of Operation Valkyrie was to have a chance to succeed, he held back at the last minute because Himmler was not present. In fact, it was unusual for Himmler to attend military conferences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226-16">[16]</a>

By 15 July, when Stauffenberg again flew to the Wolfsschanze, this condition had been dropped. The plan was for Stauffenberg to plant the briefcase with the bomb in Hitler's conference room with a timer running, excuse himself from the meeting, wait for the explosion, then fly back to Berlin and join the other plotters at the <a href="Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a>. Operation Valkyrie would be mobilised, the Reserve Army would take control of Germany and the other Nazi leaders would be arrested. Beck would be appointed provisional head of state, Goerdeler would be chancellor, and Witzleben would be commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Again on 15 July, the attempt was called off at the last minute. Himmler and Göring were present, but Hitler was called out of the room at the last moment. Stauffenberg was able to intercept the bomb and prevent its discovery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Valkyrie">Operation Valkyrie</h3></div>

On 18 July rumours reached Stauffenberg that the Gestapo had knowledge of the conspiracy and that he might be arrested at any time—this was apparently not true, but there was a sense that the net was closing in and that the next opportunity to kill Hitler must be taken because there might not be another. On the morning of Thursday 20 July Stauffenberg flew back to the Wolfsschanze for another military conference at which Hitler would be present, once again with a bomb in his briefcase.<a href="#cite_note-Valkyrie-3">[3]</a>

At around 12:30 pm as the conference began, Stauffenberg asked to use a washroom in <a href="Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a>'s office, saying that he had to change his shirt, which indeed was soaked through with sweat, it being a very hot day. There, assisted by von Haeften, he used pliers to crush the end of a <a href="Pencil_detonator" title="Pencil detonator">pencil detonator</a> inserted into a 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) block of <a href="Plastic_explosive" title="Plastic explosive">plastic explosive</a> wrapped in brown paper, that was prepared by <a href="Wessel_von_Freytag-Loringhoven" class="mw-redirect" title="Wessel von Freytag-Loringhoven">Wessel von Freytag-Loringhoven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The pencil detonator consisted of a thin copper tube containing <a href="Copper(II)_chloride" title="Copper(II) chloride">cupric chloride</a> that would take about ten minutes to silently eat through wire holding back the <a href="Firing_pin" title="Firing pin">firing pin</a> from the <a href="Percussion_cap" title="Percussion cap">percussion cap</a>. It was slow going due to war wounds that had cost Stauffenberg an eye, his right hand, and two fingers on his left hand. Interrupted by a guard knocking on the door advising him that the meeting was about to begin, he was not able to prime the second bomb, which he gave to his <a href="Aide-de-camp" title="Aide-de-camp">aide-de-camp</a>, <a href="Werner_von_Haeften" title="Werner von Haeften">Werner von Haeften</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Valkyrie-3">[3]</a>

Stauffenberg placed the single primed bomb inside his briefcase and, with the unwitting assistance of Major <a href="Ernst_John_von_Freyend" title="Ernst John von Freyend">Ernst John von Freyend</a>, entered the conference room containing Hitler and 20 officers, positioning the briefcase under the table near Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-GermanResistance-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-GermanOpposition-48">[48]</a> After a few minutes, Stauffenberg received a planned telephone call and left the room. It is presumed that Colonel <a href="Heinz_Brandt" title="Heinz Brandt">Heinz Brandt</a>, who was standing next to Hitler, used his foot to move the briefcase aside by pushing it behind the leg of the conference table,<a href="#cite_note-spiegel12h-49">[49]</a> thus unintentionally deflecting the blast from Hitler but causing the loss of one of his legs and his own demise when the bomb detonated.<a href="#cite_note-Valkyrie-3">[3]</a>

At 12:42<a href="#cite_note-spiegel12h-49">[49]</a> the bomb detonated, demolishing the conference room and killing a stenographer instantly. More than 20 people in the room were injured with three officers later dying. Hitler survived, as did everyone else who was shielded from the blast by the conference table leg. His trousers were singed and tattered, and he suffered from a perforated eardrum (as did most of the other 24 people in the room),<a href="#cite_note-spiegel12h-49">[49]</a> as well as from conjunctivitis in his right eye. Hitler's personal physician, <a href="Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a>, administered <a href="Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> which had been taken from captured Allied soldiers for treatment; Morell had previously observed the death of <a href="Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a> from <a href="Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> in an assassination two years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Escape_from_the_Wolf's_Lair_and_flight_to_Berlin">Escape from the Wolf's Lair and flight to Berlin</h3></div>

Stauffenberg was seen leaving the conference building by Kurt Salterberg, a soldier on guard duty who did not consider this out of the ordinary as attendees sometimes left to collect documents. He then saw a "massive" cloud of smoke, wood splinters and paper and men being hurled through a window and door.<a href="#cite_note-dw-51">[51]</a> Stauffenberg, upon witnessing the explosion and smoke, assumed that Hitler was dead. He then climbed into a staff car with his aide <a href="Werner_von_Haeften" title="Werner von Haeften">Werner von Haeften</a> and managed to bluff his way past three checkpoints to exit the Wolfsschanze complex. Haeften then tossed the second (unprimed) bomb into the forest as they made a dash for Rastenburg airfield, reaching it before it could be realised that Stauffenberg could be responsible for the explosion. At first it was thought that the explosion had been the result of an aerial bombing, but when it was confirmed that no warplanes had flown over and Stauffenberg was absent, the theory of an assassination attempt gained strength. By 13:00 he was airborne in a <a href="Heinkel_He_111" title="Heinkel He 111">Heinkel He 111</a><a href="#cite_note-Sereny-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allen-53">[53]</a> arranged by General <a href="Eduard_Wagner" title="Eduard Wagner">Eduard Wagner</a>.

By the time Stauffenberg's aircraft reached Berlin about 16:00,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> General <a href="Erich_Fellgiebel" title="Erich Fellgiebel">Erich Fellgiebel</a>, an officer at the Wolfsschanze who was in on the plot, had phoned the <a href="Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a> and told the plotters that Hitler had survived the explosion. As a result, the plot to mobilise Operation Valkyrie would have no chance of succeeding once the officers of the Reserve Army knew that Hitler was alive. There was more confusion when Stauffenberg's aircraft landed and he phoned from the airport to say that Hitler was in fact dead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227-56">[56]</a> The Bendlerblock plotters did not know whom to believe.

Finally, at 16:00 Olbricht issued the orders for Operation Valkyrie to be mobilised. The vacillating General Fromm, however, phoned Field Marshal <a href="Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a> at the Wolf's Lair and was assured that Hitler was alive. Keitel demanded to know Stauffenberg's whereabouts. This told Fromm that the plot had been traced to his headquarters and that he was in mortal danger. Fromm replied that he thought Stauffenberg was with Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff198111–12-57">[57]</a>

Meanwhile, General <a href="Carl-Heinrich_von_St%C3%BClpnagel" title="Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel">Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel</a>, military governor of <a href="German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">occupied France</a>, managed to disarm the SD and SS and captured most of their leadership. He travelled to Field Marshal <a href="G%C3%BCnther_von_Kluge" title="Günther von Kluge">Günther von Kluge</a>'s headquarters and asked him to contact the Allies, only to be informed that Hitler was alive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227-56">[56]</a> At 16:40 Stauffenberg and Haeften arrived at the Bendlerblock. Fromm, presumably to protect himself, changed sides and attempted to have Stauffenberg arrested. Olbricht and Stauffenberg restrained him at gunpoint and Olbricht then appointed General <a href="Erich_Hoepner" title="Erich Hoepner">Erich Hoepner</a> to take over his duties.

By this time Himmler had taken charge of the situation and had issued orders countermanding Olbricht's mobilisation of Operation Valkyrie. In many places the coup was going ahead, led by officers who believed that Hitler was dead. City Commandant, and conspirator, Lieutenant General <a href="Paul_von_Hase" title="Paul von Hase">Paul von Hase</a> ordered the Wachbataillon Großdeutschland, under the command of <a href="Otto_Ernst_Remer" title="Otto Ernst Remer">Major Otto Ernst Remer</a>, to secure the <a href="Wilhelmstra%C3%9Fe" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelmstraße">Wilhelmstraße</a> and arrest <a href="Reichs_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichs Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda">Propaganda Minister</a> <a href="Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981209-58">[58]</a> In <a href="Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, Prague, and many other places troops occupied Nazi Party offices and arrested <a href="Gauleiter" title="Gauleiter">Gauleiters</a> and SS officers.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failure_of_the_coup">Failure of the coup</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_people_killed_or_wounded_in_the_20_July_plot" title="List of people killed or wounded in the 20 July plot">List of people killed or wounded in the 20 July plot</a></div>

At around 18:10, the commander of Military District III (Berlin), General <a href="Joachim_von_Kortzfleisch" title="Joachim von Kortzfleisch">Joachim von Kortzfleisch</a>, was summoned to the <a href="Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a>; he angrily refused Olbricht's orders, kept shouting "the Führer is alive",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996426-59">[59]</a> was arrested, and held under guard. General <a href="Karl_Freiherr_von_Th%C3%BCngen" title="Karl Freiherr von Thüngen">Karl Freiherr von Thüngen</a> was appointed in his place but proved to be of almost no help. General <a href="Fritz_Lindemann" title="Fritz Lindemann">Fritz Lindemann</a>, who was supposed to make a proclamation to the German people over the radio, failed to appear and as he held the only copy, Beck had to work on a new one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997270–272-60">[60]</a>

At 19:00 Hitler was sufficiently recovered to make phone calls. He called Goebbels at the Propaganda Ministry. Goebbels arranged for Hitler to speak to Major <a href="Otto_Ernst_Remer" title="Otto Ernst Remer">Otto Ernst Remer</a>, commander of the troops surrounding the Ministry. After assuring him that he was still alive, Hitler ordered Remer to regain control of the situation in Berlin and capture the conspirators alive. Major Remer ordered his troops to surround and seal off the Bendlerblock, but not to enter the buildings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981209-58">[58]</a> At 20:00 a furious Witzleben arrived at the Bendlerblock and had a bitter argument with Stauffenberg, who was still insisting that the coup could go ahead. Witzleben left shortly afterwards. At around this time the planned seizure of power in Paris was aborted when Field Marshal <a href="G%C3%BCnther_von_Kluge" title="Günther von Kluge">Günther von Kluge</a>, who had recently been appointed commander-in-chief in the West, learnt that Hitler was alive.

As Remer regained control of the city and word spread that Hitler was still alive, the less resolute members of the conspiracy in Berlin began to change sides. Fromm was freed from his room and fighting broke out in the Bendlerblock between officers supporting and opposing the coup; Stauffenberg was wounded after a shootout. As the fighting was still ongoing, Remer and his forces arrived at the Bendlerblock and the conspirators were overwhelmed and arrested; by 23:00 Fromm and Remer had regained control of the building.

Perhaps hoping that a show of zealous loyalty would save him, Fromm convened an impromptu <a href="Court_martial" class="mw-redirect" title="Court martial">court martial</a> consisting of himself, and sentenced Olbricht, Stauffenberg, Haeften and another officer, Colonel <a href="Albrecht_Mertz_von_Quirnheim" title="Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim">Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim</a>, to death, while putting Beck under arrest; Beck, realising the situation was hopeless, asked for a pistol and shot himself—the first of many attempted suicides in the coming days. At first Beck only seriously wounded himself—he was then shot in the neck and killed by soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Despite protests from Remer (who had been ordered by Hitler to arrest the conspirators), at 00:10 on 21 July the four officers were executed in the courtyard outside, possibly to prevent them from revealing Fromm's involvement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227-56">[56]</a> Others would have been executed as well, but at 00:30 <a href="Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a> personnel led by <a href="Obersturmbannf%C3%BChrer" title="Obersturmbannführer">SS-Obersturmbannführer</a> <a href="Otto_Skorzeny" title="Otto Skorzeny">Otto Skorzeny</a> arrived and further executions were forbidden.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div>

Over the following weeks, Himmler's Gestapo, driven by a furious Hitler, rounded up nearly everyone who had the remotest connection with the plot. The discovery of letters and diaries in the homes and offices of those arrested revealed the plots of 1938, 1939, and 1943, and this led to further rounds of arrests, including that of Colonel General <a href="Franz_Halder" title="Franz Halder">Franz Halder</a>, who finished the war in a concentration camp. Under Himmler's new <a href="Sippenhaft" title="Sippenhaft">Sippenhaft</a> (blood guilt) laws, many relatives of the principal plotters were also arrested in the immediate aftermath of the failed plot.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>

Sippenhaft was proposed and introduced by Himmler and remained in effect until the end of the war. Its distribution was aimed at creating fears among Wehrmacht members for their families in the event of an attempted betrayal. At first, the practice was not regulated and was carried out chaotically, which was due to Himmler’s refusal to “establish specific rules regarding clan guardianship”, however, on 5 February 1945 Keitel’s order was issued, according to which the family of a serviceman who committed high treason was subjected to repression up to and including the death penalty. Presumably, the Sippenhaft regulation was introduced to tighten control over the military and keep them in the army during the final period of the war.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a>

Particularly noteworthy in considering this issue is the scientific publication of Robert Loeffel. In his study, Loeffel came to the conclusion that Sippenhaft, as part of state terror at the end of the war, was a means of intimidation within Nazi Germany, when in reality this practice was not always applied, and most of the terror was adopted only after 20 July. This was due to its duality: terror was implemented only in quantities necessary to maintain a level of fear among the population that would not lead them to go over to the side of resistance.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>

More than 7,000 people were arrested<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> and 4,980 were executed.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Not all of them were connected with the plot, since the Gestapo used the occasion to settle scores with many other people suspected of opposition sympathies. <a href="Alfons_Heck" title="Alfons Heck">Alfons Heck</a>, a former <a href="Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a> member and later a historian, describes the reaction many Germans felt to the punishments of the conspirators:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">When I heard that German officers had tried to kill Adolf Hitler ... I was enraged. I fully concurred with the sentences imposed on them, strangling I felt was too good for them; this was the time, precisely, when we were at a very ... precarious military situation. And the only man who could possibly stave off disaster ... was Adolf Hitler. That opinion was shared by many Germans, Germans who did not adore Hitler, who did not belong to the [Nazi] Party.</blockquote>Allied radio stations also speculated on who the possible remaining suspects could be, many of whom were eventually implicated in the plot.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

Very few of the plotters tried to escape or to deny their guilt when arrested. Those who survived interrogation were given perfunctory trials before the <a href="People's_Court_(Germany)" title="People's Court (Germany)">People's Court</a>, a <a href="Kangaroo_court" title="Kangaroo court">kangaroo court</a> that always decided in favour of the prosecution. The court's president, <a href="Roland_Freisler" title="Roland Freisler">Roland Freisler</a>, was a fanatical Nazi seen shouting furiously and insulting the accused in the trial, which was filmed for propaganda purposes. The plotters were stripped of their uniforms and given old, shabby clothing to humiliate them for the cameras.<a href="#cite_note-See_Shirer_1070-1071-68">[68]</a> The officers involved in the plot were "tried" before the Court of Military Honour, a <a href="Drumhead_court-martial" title="Drumhead court-martial">drumhead court-martial</a> that merely considered the evidence furnished to it by the Gestapo before expelling the accused from the Army in disgrace and handing them over to the People's Court.<a href="#cite_note-RiseFall-69">[69]</a>

The first trials were held on 7 and 8 August 1944. Hitler had ordered that those found guilty should be "hanged like cattle".<a href="#cite_note-See_Shirer_1070-1071-68">[68]</a> Many people took their own lives prior to either their trial or their execution, including Kluge, who was accused of having knowledge of the plot beforehand and not revealing it to Hitler. Stülpnagel tried to commit suicide, but survived and was hanged.

Tresckow killed himself the day after the failed plot by use of a hand grenade in <a href="No_man's_land" title="No man's land">no man's land</a> between Soviet and German lines. <a href="Adjutant" title="Adjutant">Adjutant</a> General <a href="Fabian_von_Schlabrendorff" title="Fabian von Schlabrendorff">Fabian von Schlabrendorff</a> recalled Tresckow saying the following before his death:

<blockquote class="templatequote">The whole world will vilify us now, but I am still totally convinced that we did the right thing. Hitler is the archenemy not only of Germany but of the world. When, in few hours' time, I go before God to account for what I have done and left undone, I know I will be able to justify what I did in the struggle against Hitler. None of us can bewail his own death; those who consented to join our circle put on the <a href="Shirt_of_Nessus" title="Shirt of Nessus">robe of Nessus</a>. A human being's moral integrity begins when he is prepared to sacrifice his life for his convictions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997289–290-70">[70]</a></blockquote>

Fromm's attempt to win favour by executing Stauffenberg and others on the night of 20 July had merely exposed his own previous lack of action and apparent failure to report the plot. Having been arrested on 21 July, Fromm was later convicted and sentenced to death by the People's Court. Despite his knowledge of the conspiracy, his formal sentence charged him with poor performance in his duties. He was executed in <a href="Brandenburg_an_der_Havel" title="Brandenburg an der Havel">Brandenburg an der Havel</a>. Hitler personally commuted his death sentence from hanging to the "more honourable" firing squad. <a href="Erwin_Planck" title="Erwin Planck">Erwin Planck</a>, the son of the physicist <a href="Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, was executed for his involvement.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>

According to a report of SS-Obergruppenführer <a href="Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a> to Hitler dated 29 November 1944 on the background of the plot, states that the Pope was somehow a conspirator, specifically naming Eugenio Pacelli, <a href="Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a>, as being a party in the attempt.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Evidence indicates that the 20 July plotters Colonel <a href="Wessel_von_Freytag-Loringhoven" class="mw-redirect" title="Wessel von Freytag-Loringhoven">Wessel von Freytag-Loringhoven</a>, Colonel <a href="Erwin_von_Lahousen" title="Erwin von Lahousen">Erwin von Lahousen</a>, and Admiral <a href="Wilhelm_Canaris" title="Wilhelm Canaris">Wilhelm Canaris</a> were involved in the foiling of Hitler's <a href="Alleged_plot_to_kidnap_Pope_Pius_XII" title="Alleged plot to kidnap Pope Pius XII">alleged plot to kidnap or murder Pope Pius XII</a> in 1943, when Canaris reported the plot to Italian counterintelligence officer General <a href="Cesare_Am%C3%A8" title="Cesare Amè">Cesare Amè</a>, who passed on the information.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>

A member of the <a href="Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">SA</a> convicted of participating in the plot was SA-Obergruppenführer <a href="Wolf-Heinrich_Graf_von_Helldorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorf">Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorf</a>, who was the <a href="Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Orpo</a> Police Chief of Berlin and had been in contact with members of the resistance since before the war. Collaborating closely with SS-<a href="Gruppenf%C3%BChrer" title="Gruppenführer">Gruppenführer</a> <a href="Arthur_Nebe" title="Arthur Nebe">Arthur Nebe</a>, he was supposed to direct all police forces in Berlin to stand down and not interfere in the military actions to seize the government. However, his actions on 20 July had minimal influence on the events. For his involvement in the conspiracy, he was later arrested, convicted of treason and executed.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>

After 3 February 1945, when Freisler was killed in an American air raid, there were no more formal trials, but as late as April, with the war weeks away from its end, Canaris' diary was found, and many more people were implicated. <a href="Hans_von_Dohnanyi" title="Hans von Dohnanyi">Hans Von Dohnanyi</a> was accused of being the "spiritual leader" of the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler, and executed on 6 April 1945. <a href="Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a>, whom Von Dohnanyi had recruited into the Abwehr, was executed 9 April 1945 along with Canaris, Oster, and four others. Executions continued and ramped up into the last days of the war, as the Nazis were determined to take down as many of their enemies with them as they possibly could.

Hitler took his survival to be a "divine moment in history", and commissioned a special decoration to be made for each person wounded or killed in the blast. The result was the <a href="Wound_Badge" title="Wound Badge">Wound Badge</a> of 20 July 1944. The badges were struck in three values: gold, silver, and black. (The colours denoted the severity of the wounds received by each recipient.) A total of 100 badges were manufactured,<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> and 47 are believed to have actually been awarded. Each badge was accompanied by an ornate award document personally signed by Hitler. The badges themselves bore a <a href="Facsimile" title="Facsimile">facsimile</a> of his signature, making them among the rarest <a href="List_of_military_decorations_of_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="List of military decorations of Nazi Germany">decorations to have been awarded by Nazi Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

For his role in stopping the coup Major Remer was promoted to colonel and ended the war as a Major General. After the war he co-founded the <a href="Socialist_Reich_Party" title="Socialist Reich Party">Socialist Reich Party</a> and remained a prominent <a href="Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazi</a> and advocate of <a href="Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> until his death in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>

Major <a href="Philipp_von_Boeselager" title="Philipp von Boeselager">Philipp von Boeselager</a>, the German officer who provided the plastic explosives used in the bomb, escaped detection and survived the war. He was the second-to-last survivor of those involved in the plot and died on 1 May 2008, aged 90.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The last survivor of the 20 July Plot was Oberleutnant <a href="Ewald-Heinrich_von_Kleist-Schmenzin" title="Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin">Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin</a>, the thwarted plotter of just a few months before. He died on 8 March 2013, aged 90.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a>

As a result of the failed coup, every member of the Wehrmacht was required to reswear his loyalty oath, by name, to Hitler and on 24 July 1944 the military salute was replaced throughout the armed forces with the <a href="Hitler_Salute" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler Salute">Hitler Salute</a> in which the arm was outstretched and the salutation Heil Hitler was given.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBüchner1991-82">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planned_government">Planned government</h2></div>

The conspirators had earlier designated positions in secret to form a government that would take office after the assassination of Hitler were it to prove successful. Because of the plot's failure, such a government never rose to power and most of its members were executed.

The following were intended for these roles as at July 1944:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERitter1956619-83">[83]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Ludwig_Beck" title="Ludwig Beck">Ludwig Beck</a> – <a href="Reichsverweser" title="Reichsverweser">Reichsverweser</a> (or <a href="Luogotenente" title="Luogotenente">Lieutenant-General</a> of the Reich, provisional head of state)</li>

<li><a href="Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler" title="Carl Friedrich Goerdeler">Carl Friedrich Goerdeler</a> – <a href="Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Leuschner" title="Wilhelm Leuschner">Wilhelm Leuschner</a> – <a href="Vice-Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Vice-Chancellor of Germany">Vice-Chancellor</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_L%C3%B6be" title="Paul Löbe">Paul Löbe</a> – <a href="President_of_the_Reichstag" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Reichstag">President of the Reichstag</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Leber" title="Julius Leber">Julius Leber</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Ministry of the Interior">Interior Minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugen_Bolz" title="Eugen Bolz">Eugen Bolz</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_Science%2C_Education_and_Culture" title="Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture">Minister of Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Werner_von_der_Schulenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg">Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg</a> or <a href="Ulrich_von_Hassell" title="Ulrich von Hassell">Ulrich von Hassell</a> – <a href="Reich_Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Foreign Office">Foreign Minister</a></li>

<li><a href="Ewald_Loeser" title="Ewald Loeser">Ewald Loeser</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Ministry of Finance">Minister of Finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Erwin_von_Witzleben" title="Erwin von Witzleben">Erwin von Witzleben</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Ministry of War">Minister of War</a> and Commander-in-Chief of the Wehrmacht

<ul><li><a href="Claus_von_Stauffenberg" title="Claus von Stauffenberg">Claus von Stauffenberg</a> and <a href="Friedrich_Olbricht" title="Friedrich Olbricht">Friedrich Olbricht</a> – <a href="Secretary_of_state#Germany" title="Secretary of state">State Secretaries</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Oster" title="Hans Oster">Hans Oster</a> – President of the <a href="Reichskriegsgericht" title="Reichskriegsgericht">Reichskriegsgericht</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Koch_(lawyer)" title="Hans Koch (lawyer)">Hans Koch</a> – President of the <a href="Reichsgericht" title="Reichsgericht">Reichsgericht</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Blessing" title="Karl Blessing">Karl Blessing</a> – President of the <a href="Reichsbank" title="Reichsbank">Reichsbank</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Lejeune-Jung" title="Paul Lejeune-Jung">Paul Lejeune-Jung</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Ministry of Economics">Minister of Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Andreas_Hermes" title="Andreas Hermes">Andreas Hermes</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_Food_and_Agriculture" title="Reich Ministry of Food and Agriculture">Minister of Food and Agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Josef_Wirmer" title="Josef Wirmer">Josef Wirmer</a> – <a href="Reich_Ministry_of_Justice" title="Reich Ministry of Justice">Minister of Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernhard_Letterhaus" title="Bernhard Letterhaus">Bernhard Letterhaus</a> – <a href="Minister_without_portfolio" title="Minister without portfolio">Minister without portfolio</a> or for Reconstruction</li>

<li><a href="Henning_von_Tresckow" title="Henning von Tresckow">Henning von Tresckow</a> – Chief of Police</li>

<li><a href="Carl-Hans_von_Hardenberg" title="Carl-Hans von Hardenberg">Carl-Hans von Hardenberg</a> – <a href="Oberpr%C3%A4sident" title="Oberpräsident">Oberpräsident</a> of Berlin and Brandenburg</li></ul>

</div>

It was planned to include one Austrian politician (probably <a href="Heinrich_Glei%C3%9Fner" title="Heinrich Gleißner">Heinrich Gleißner</a> or <a href="Karl_Seitz" title="Karl Seitz">Karl Seitz</a>) as minister without portfolio to keep Austria in the Reich.

<a href="Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> was listed in several notes of the conspirators as a possible Minister of Armaments; however, most of these notes stated Speer should not be approached until after Hitler was dead and one conjectural government chart had a question mark beside Speer's name. This (in addition to Speer being one of Hitler's closest and most trusted friends) most likely saved Speer from arrest by the SS.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a>

<a href="Wilhelm%2C_German_Crown_Prince" title="Wilhelm, German Crown Prince">Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Germany</a>, was also under suspicion as he was touted to be head of state after Hitler. He was placed under the supervision of the Gestapo and his home in the <a href="Cecilienhof" title="Cecilienhof">Cecilienhof</a> at <a href="Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> watched.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>: 11–15

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erwin_Rommel's_involvement">Erwin Rommel's involvement</h2></div>

The extent of <a href="Generalfeldmarschall" title="Generalfeldmarschall">Generalfeldmarschall</a> <a href="Erwin_Rommel" title="Erwin Rommel">Erwin Rommel</a>'s involvement in the military's <a href="German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">resistance against Hitler</a> or the 20 July plot is difficult to ascertain, as most of the leaders who were directly involved did not survive and limited documentation on the conspirators' plans and preparations exists. Historians' opinions on this matter vary greatly. According to <a href="Peter_Hoffmann_(historian)" title="Peter Hoffmann (historian)">Peter Hoffmann</a>, he had turned into Hitler's resolute opponent and in the end supported the coup (though not the assassination itself). He was even the natural leader of the opposition in France to some extent, considering the fact he had drawn many military and political personnel into his orbit in preparation of a "Western solution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996351–354-86">[86]</a> <a href="Ralf_Georg_Reuth" title="Ralf Georg Reuth">Ralf Georg Reuth</a> thinks that the conspirators perhaps mistook Rommel's ambiguous attitude for approval of the assassination, considering: the conspirators normally did not explicitly mention the assassination; Rommel was very naive and attached to Hitler (who was the personification of National Socialism, which had provided Rommel with a great career) and thus even if <a href="Caesar_von_Hofacker" title="Caesar von Hofacker">Caesar von Hofacker</a>—personal advisor to Stülpnagel—had mentioned a violent upheaval in Berlin, he would not have interpreted it as an assassination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuth2005177–178-87">[87]</a> Thus, Rommel's participation remains ambiguous and the perception of it largely has its source in the subsequent events (especially Rommel's forced suicide) and the accounts by surviving participants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146-88">[88]</a>

According to a post-war account by <a href="Karl_Str%C3%B6lin" title="Karl Strölin">Karl Strölin</a>, the Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart at that time, he and two other conspirators, <a href="Alexander_von_Falkenhausen" title="Alexander von Falkenhausen">Alexander von Falkenhausen</a> and <a href="Carl_Heinrich_von_St%C3%BClpnagel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Heinrich von Stülpnagel">Carl Heinrich von Stülpnagel</a> began efforts to bring Rommel into the anti-Hitler conspiracy in early 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer20111031,_1177-89">[89]</a> On 15 April 1944 Rommel's new chief of staff, <a href="Hans_Speidel" title="Hans Speidel">Hans Speidel</a>, arrived in Normandy and reintroduced Rommel to Stülpnagel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014142–150-90">[90]</a> Speidel had previously been connected to <a href="Carl_Goerdeler" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Goerdeler">Carl Goerdeler</a>, the civilian leader of the resistance, but not to the plotters led by Stauffenberg, and only came to the attention of Stauffenberg due to his appointment to Rommel's headquarters. The conspirators felt they needed the support of a field marshal on active duty. Witzleben was a field marshal, but had not been on active duty since 1942. The conspirators gave instructions to Speidel to bring Rommel into their circle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014139–142-91">[91]</a>

Speidel met with the former foreign minister <a href="Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a> and Strölin on 27 May in Germany, ostensibly at Rommel's request, although the latter was not present. Neurath and Strölin suggested opening immediate surrender negotiations in the West, and, according to Speidel, Rommel agreed to further discussions and preparations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014146-92">[92]</a> Around the same timeframe, however, the plotters in Berlin were not aware that Rommel had reportedly decided to take part in the conspiracy. On 16 May, they informed <a href="Allen_Dulles" title="Allen Dulles">Allen Dulles</a>, through whom they hoped to negotiate with the Western Allies, that Rommel could not be counted on for support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014145–146-93">[93]</a> Three days before the assassination attempt, on 17 July, Rommel's staff car was strafed by an Allied aircraft in France; he was hospitalised with major injuries and incapacitated on 20 July.

Rommel opposed assassinating Hitler. After the war, his widow maintained that he believed an assassination attempt would spark a civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014140-94">[94]</a> According to the journalist and author <a href="William_L._Shirer" title="William L. Shirer">William L. Shirer</a>, Rommel knew about the conspiracy and advocated that Hitler be arrested and placed on trial. The historian Ian Becket argues that "there is no credible evidence that Rommel had more than limited and superficial knowledge of the plot" and concludes that he would not have acted to aid the plotters in the aftermath of the attempt on 20 July,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146-88">[88]</a> while the historian Ralf Georg Reuth contends that "there was no indication of any active participation of Rommel in the conspiracy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuth2005tbd-95">[95]</a> The historian <a href="Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a> concluded that he knew of a plot, but was not involved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2009642-96">[96]</a>

What is not debated are the results of the failed bomb plot of 20 July. Many conspirators were arrested and the dragnet expanded to thousands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014152-97">[97]</a> Consequently, it did not take long for Rommel to come under suspicion. He was primarily implicated through his connection to Kluge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146-88">[88]</a> Rommel's name also came up in confessions made under torture by Stülpnagel and Hofacker, and was included in Goerdeler's papers on a list of potential supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014141,_152-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuth2005183-99">[99]</a> Hofacker confessed that Rommel had agreed to demand for Hitler to step down, and if he refused, Rommel would join the other conspirators in deposing Hitler. Rommel was also planned to become a member of the post-Hitler government in papers drawn up by Goerdeler.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a>

Hitler knew it would cause a major scandal on the home front to have the popular Rommel publicly branded as a traitor. With this in mind, he opted to give Rommel the option of suicide via <a href="Potassium_cyanide" title="Potassium cyanide">cyanide</a> or a public trial by Freisler's People's Court. Rommel was well aware that being hauled before the People's Court was tantamount to a death sentence. He also knew that if he chose to stand trial, his family <a href="Sippenhaft" title="Sippenhaft">would have been severely punished</a> even before the all-but-certain conviction and execution. With this in mind, he committed suicide on 14 October 1944. He was buried with full military honours and his family was spared from persecution; his cause of death did not come to light until after the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2009642-96">[96]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Involvement_in_war_crimes_and_atrocities">Involvement in war crimes and atrocities</h3></div>

Involvement of the plotters in <a href="Consequences_of_Nazism" title="Consequences of Nazism">war crimes and atrocities</a> has been studied by historians such as <a href="Christian_Gerlach" title="Christian Gerlach">Christian Gerlach</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Gerlach proved that plotters such as Tresckow and Gersdorff were aware of mass murder happening in the East from at least 1941. He writes: "Especially with reference to the murder of the Jews, [it is said that] 'the SS' had deceived the officers by killing in secret, filing incomplete reports or none at all; if general staff officers protested, the SS threatened them." Gerlach concludes: "This is, of course, nonsense."

Tresckow also "signed orders for the deportation of thousands of orphaned children for forced labor in the Reich"—the so-called <a href="Heu-Aktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Heu-Aktion">Heu-Aktion</a>. Such actions led historians to question the motives of the plotters, which seemed more concerned with the military situation than with Nazi atrocities and German war crimes. However some others assert that, in such actions, Tresckow had to act out of principle to continue with his coup plans.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a>

Gerlach pointed out that the plotters had "selective moral criteria" and while they were concerned about Jews being exterminated in the <a href="Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, they were far less disturbed about <a href="German_war_crimes" title="German war crimes">mass murder of civilians in the East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Century_page_134-104">[104]</a> To Gerlach, the primary motivation of the plotters was to ensure German victory in the war or at least prevent defeat.<a href="#cite_note-Century_page_134-104">[104]</a> Gerlach's arguments were later supported by the historian <a href="Hans_Mommsen" title="Hans Mommsen">Hans Mommsen</a>, who stated that the plotters were interested above all in military victory.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> However, Gerlach's arguments were also criticised by some scholars, among them <a href="Peter_Hoffmann_(historian)" title="Peter Hoffmann (historian)">Peter Hoffmann</a> from <a href="McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> and Klaus Jochen Arnold from the <a href="Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung">Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung</a>. While acknowledging that Tresckow and other 20 July conspirators had been involved in war crimes, Arnold writes that Gerlach's argument is oversimplified.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In 2011 Danny Orbach, a <a href="Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>-based historian, wrote that Gerlach's reading of the sources is highly skewed, and, at times, diametrically opposed to what they actually say. In one case, according to Orbach, Gerlach had falsely paraphrased the memoir of the resistance fighter Colonel <a href="Rudolf_Christoph_Freiherr_von_Gersdorff" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff">Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff</a>, and in another case, quoted misleadingly from an SS document.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commemoration_and_collective_memory">Commemoration and collective memory</h2></div>

A 1951 survey by the <a href="Allensbach_Institute" title="Allensbach Institute">Allensbach Institute</a> revealed that "Only a third of respondents had a positive opinion about the men and women who had tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Nazi regime."<a href="#cite_note-dwelle2014-109">[109]</a>

The "first official memorial service for the resistance fighters of 20 July" was held on the tenth anniversary in 1954. In his speech at the event, <a href="Theodor_Heuss" title="Theodor Heuss">Theodor Heuss</a>, the first <a href="President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President of the Federal Republic of Germany</a>, said that "harsh words" were necessary, and that "There have been cases of refusal to carry out orders that have achieved historic greatness."<a href="#cite_note-dwelle2014-109">[109]</a> After this speech, public opinion in Germany began to shift.

Nonetheless, a 1956 proposal to name a school after Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg was opposed by a majority of citizens, and, according to <a href="Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a> (in 2014):

<blockquote class="templatequote">East Germany's communist leadership had ignored the assassination attempt for decades, mainly because the conservative and aristocratic conspirators around Stauffenberg did not match the socialist ideal.<a href="#cite_note-dwelle2014-109">[109]</a></blockquote>

The first all-German commemoration of the event did not take place until 1990. In 2013 the last surviving member of the plot, Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin, died in Munich.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> As of 2014, the resistance fighters are generally considered heroes in Germany, according to <a href="Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dwelle2014-109">[109]</a>

<div class="gallerytext">Memorial at the <a href="Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a>: "Here died for Germany on 20 July 1944" (followed by the names of the principal conspirators)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Memorial at the cemetery (<a href="Alter_St.-Matth%C3%A4us-Kirchhof" title="Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof">Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof</a>, Berlin) where the corpses were buried but afterwards removed to an unknown place</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Memorial statue at the Bendlerblock by <a href="Richard_Scheibe" title="Richard Scheibe">Richard Scheibe</a></div>

</li>

</ul>

<ul><li><a href="Assassination_attempts_on_Adolf_Hitler" title="Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler">Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler</a></li>

<li><a href="Conspiracy_theories_about_Adolf_Hitler's_death" title="Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler's death">Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler's death</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Desert_Fox_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Desert Fox (film)">The Desert Fox (1951 film)</a></li>

<li><a href="Jackboot_Mutiny" title="Jackboot Mutiny">Jackboot Mutiny (1955 film)</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Plot_to_Assassinate_Hitler" title="The Plot to Assassinate Hitler"> The Plot to Assassinate Hitler (1955 film)</a></li>

<li><a href="Treason_(1959_film)" title="Treason (1959 film)">Treason (1959 film)</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Plot_to_Kill_Hitler" title="The Plot to Kill Hitler">The Plot to Kill Hitler (1990 film)</a></li>

<li><a href="Stauffenberg_(film)" title="Stauffenberg (film)">Stauffenberg (film)</a> (2004)</li>

<li><a href="Valkyrie_(film)" title="Valkyrie (film)">Valkyrie (2008 film)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Valkyrie%3A_The_Stauffenberg_Plot_to_Kill_Hitler" title="Operation Valkyrie: The Stauffenberg Plot to Kill Hitler">Operation Valkyrie: The Stauffenberg Plot to Kill Hitler (2008 documentary film)</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Gramsch" title="Walter Gramsch">Walter Gramsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_Orchestra" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Orchestra">Black Orchestra</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFKahn2003" class="citation book cs1">Kahn, Arthur D. (2003). "2 We do Not Call Upon the Germans to Revolt fall 1944". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780271022758-005/pdf">Experiment in Occupation</a>. <a href="Penn_State_University_Press" title="Penn State University Press">Penn State University Press</a>. pp. 13–20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9780271022758-005">10.1515/9780271022758-005</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-271-02275-8</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-AxisCriminality-2"><a href="#cite_ref-AxisCriminality_2-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOffice_of_United_States_Chief_of_Counsel_for_Prosecution_of_Axis_Criminality1948" class="citation book cs1">Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VdUPVl2I2BEC&dq=%2220+july+1944+putsch%22&pg=PA1690">Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression. Supplement B.</a> <a href="United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. p. 1688.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Valkyrie-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valkyrie_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valkyrie_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valkyrie_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valkyrie_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valkyrie_3-4">e</a> <cite id="CITEREFHasic2019" class="citation magazine cs1">Hasic, Albinko (19 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5629999/operation-valkyrie-july-plot/">"A Group of German Leaders tried to Kill Hitler in 1944. Here's Why They Failed"</a>. Time. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420113253/https://time.com/5629999/operation-valkyrie-july-plot/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/July-Plot">"July Plot"</a>. Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230315073554/https://www.britannica.com/event/July-Plot">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-shirer1393-5"><a href="#cite_ref-shirer1393_5-0">^</a> According to Shirer, Führer Conferences on Naval Affairs, 1960, p. 1393.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Hans Helmut Kirst "20th of July"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Winston Churchill, war annual books, "1944"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> William L. Shirer The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, part IV, chapter "20th July"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Klemens von Klemperer, German Resistance against Hitler: The Search for Allies Abroad 1938–1945

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996608–609-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996608–609_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoffmann1996">Hoffmann 1996</a>, pp. 608–609.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Enzensberger_2008-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Enzensberger_2008_11-0">^</a> <a href="Hans_Magnus_Enzensberger" title="Hans Magnus Enzensberger">Hans Magnus Enzensberger</a>: Hammerstein oder Der Eigensinn. Eine deutsche Geschichte. Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp 2008, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-518-41960-1</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Goerdeler">"Carl Goerdeler"</a>. Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201125203216/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Goerdeler">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gdw-berlin.de/en/recess/biographies/index_of_persons/biographie/view-bio/helmuth-james-graf-von-moltke/?no_cache=1">"Helmuth James Graf von Moltke"</a>. Gedenkstatte Deutscher Widerstand. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240702194838/https://www.gdw-berlin.de/en/recess/biographies/index_of_persons/biographie/view-bio/helmuth-james-graf-von-moltke/?no_cache=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946224-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946224_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurtz1946">Kurtz 1946</a>, p. 224.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 471

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946226_16-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurtz1946">Kurtz 1946</a>, p. 226.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997188-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997188_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, p. 188.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/another-plot-to-kill-hitler-foiled">"Another Plot to Kill Hitler Foiled"</a>. History.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321100124/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/another-plot-to-kill-hitler-foiled">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> von Schlabrendorff, Fabian, They Almost Killed Hitler, p. 39.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Encyclopedia of Contemporary German Culture, "The heroes of West German accounts at this time were the men involved in the largely conservative, nationalist resistance of the July Plot of 1944. It was not until much later that a new generation of left-liberal historians pointed out how little many involved in the July Plot actually sympathized with or understood democratic ideas. John Sandford. 2013.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Faith and Democracy: Political Transformations at the German Protestant Kirchentag, 1949–1969 Benjamin Carl Pearson 2007

Similarly, one could argue that the conservative, nationalist resistance circles that grew up during the war years, whose activity culminated in the July 1944 Officers Plot

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2015198-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2015198_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2015">Evans 2015</a>, p. 198.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2009b-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2009b_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2009b">Evans 2009b</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kas.de/de/web/geschichte-der-cdu/kalender/kalender-detail/-/content/attentat-auf-adolf-hitler">"Der 20. Juli 1944 – Attentat auf Adolf Hitler"</a>. 26 June 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720095613/https://www.kas.de/de/web/geschichte-der-cdu/kalender/kalender-detail/-/content/attentat-auf-adolf-hitler">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Hans Coppi Jr.; 'Der vergessene Widerstand der Arbeiter: Gewerkschafter, Kommunisten, Sozialdemokraten, Trotzkisten, Anarchisten und Zwangsarbeiter'; pp. 154–157

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2015198–199-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2015198–199_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2015">Evans 2015</a>, pp. 198–199.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> German Foreign Policy. Klaus Hilderbrand. pp. 185–188

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Alternatives to Hitler: German Resistance Under the Third Reich. Hans Mommsen. p. 161

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> German Foreign Policy Klaus Hilderbrand, page 188

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Peter Hoffman Stauffenberg: A Family History, 1905–1944; p. 116; 2003 McGill-Queen's Press

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> War of extermination p. 137.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> A Concise History of Germany. p. 200. Mary Fulbrook

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoerdelerBeck1944" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Goerdeler, Carl; Beck, Ludwig (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gdw-berlin.de/fileadmin/bilder/publikationen/begleitmaterialien/Faksimiles_PDFs_deutsch/FS_10.1_DE_2.Aufl-RZ-web.pdf">"Draft for a government policy statement"</a> (PDF). <a href="German_Resistance_Memorial_Center" title="German Resistance Memorial Center">German Resistance Memorial Center</a> (in German).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKaminski" class="citation web cs1">Kaminski, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150407163855/http://josephkaminski.net/2015/02/16/the-plots-to-kill-hitler/">"The Plots to Kill Hitler"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://josephkaminski.net/2015/02/16/the-plots-to-kill-hitler/">the original</a> on 7 April 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Cambridge-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_35-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/departments/germanic-collections/about-collections/spotlight-archive/operation-valkyrie">"Operation Valkyrie 1944"</a>. University of Cambridge. 27 April 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210203103140/https://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/departments/germanic-collections/about-collections/spotlight-archive/operation-valkyrie">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJones2009" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Nigel (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8SIDwAAQBAJ">Countdown to Valkyrie: The July Plot to Assassinate Hitler</a>. Pen & Sword Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1783461455</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411174733/https://books.google.com/books?id=N8SIDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997219-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997219_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, p. 219.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoffmann2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffmann, Peter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2FVfZg.2007.55.2.331">"Oberst i.G. Henning von Tresckow und die Staatsstreichspläne im Jahr 1943"</a>. Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte. 55 (2): 331–364. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2FVfZg.2007.55.2.331">10.1524/VfZg.2007.55.2.331</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143574023">143574023</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997220-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997220_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, p. 220.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoorhouse2007241-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoorhouse2007241_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoorhouse2007">Moorhouse 2007</a>, p. 241.

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<li id="cite_note-Attempts-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Attempts_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Attempts_41-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFAndrews2015" class="citation web cs1">Andrews, Evan (29 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/6-assassination-attempts-on-adolf-hitler">"6 Assassination Attempts on Adolf Hitler"</a>. History.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307140552/https://www.history.com/news/6-assassination-attempts-on-adolf-hitler">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Many_Attempts-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Many_Attempts_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Many_Attempts_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Many_Attempts_42-2">c</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.co.uk/article/killing-hitler-the-many-assassination-attempts-on-adolf-hitler">"Killing Hitler: The Many Assassination Attempts on Adolf Hitler"</a>. History.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226121743/https://www.history.co.uk/article/killing-hitler-the-many-assassination-attempts-on-adolf-hitler">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997236-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997236_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, p. 236.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997228-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997228_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, p. 228.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Himmler's contacts with the opposition and his possible motives are discussed by Padfield, Himmler, pp. 419–424.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geopolintelligence.com/6-assassination-attempts-on-hitler/">"6 assassination attempts on Hitler"</a>. Geopol Intelligence. 28 August 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161113093634/http://www.geopolintelligence.com/6-assassination-attempts-on-hitler/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-GermanResistance-47"><a href="#cite_ref-GermanResistance_47-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHoffman1996" class="citation book cs1">Hoffman, Peter (1996). The History of the German Resistance, 1933–1945. McGill-Queen's Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0773515313</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-GermanOpposition-48"><a href="#cite_ref-GermanOpposition_48-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFThomsett,_Michael_C.1997" class="citation book cs1">Thomsett, Michael C. (1997). The German Opposition to Hitler: The Resistance, the Underground, and Assassination Plots, 1938–1945. McFarland. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0786403721</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-spiegel12h-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spiegel12h_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-spiegel12h_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-spiegel12h_49-2">c</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/panorama/20-juli-1944-12-uhr-der-anschlag-a-309271.html">"20. Juli 1944, 12 Uhr: Der Anschlag"</a>. Der Spiegel. 20 July 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120616141722/http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,309271,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2019 – via Spiegel Online.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJohnson2021" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Steven (2021). Extra Life (1st ed.). <a href="Riverhead_Books" title="Riverhead Books">Riverhead Books</a>. pp. 166–167. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-525-53885-1</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-dw-51"><a href="#cite_ref-dw_51-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.com/en/germany-remembers-the-plot-to-kill-hitler/a-17792469">Germany remembers the plot to kill hitler at dw</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230722063619/https://www.dw.com/en/germany-remembers-the-plot-to-kill-hitler/a-17792469">Archived</a> 22 July 2023 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 22 July 2015

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sereny-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Sereny_52-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGitta_Sereny1996" class="citation book cs1">Gitta Sereny (1996). Albert Speer His Battle with the Truth. Picador. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0330346970</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Allen-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Allen_53-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMartin_A._Allen2005" class="citation book cs1">Martin A. Allen (2005). Himmler's Secret War: The Covert Peace Negotiations of Heinrich Himmler. Robson Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1861058896</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981photo_insert_section-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981photo_insert_section_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalanteSilianoff1981">Galante & Silianoff 1981</a>, photo insert section.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/dlf-audio-archiv.2386.de.html?cal:month=7&cal:year=2010&drau:from=10.07.2010&drau:to=10.07.2010">German radio broadcast 10 July 2010</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605073429/http://www.br-online.de/bayern1/mittags-in-mainfranken/regionalnews-frankenmagazin-stauffenberg-ID1279545336073.xml">Archived</a> 5 June 2011 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on <a href="Bayerischer_Rundfunk" title="Bayerischer Rundfunk">Bayern1</a> (written version; in German)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1946227_56-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurtz1946">Kurtz 1946</a>, p. 227.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff198111–12-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff198111–12_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalanteSilianoff1981">Galante & Silianoff 1981</a>, pp. 11–12.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981209-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981209_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalanteSilianoff1981209_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalanteSilianoff1981">Galante & Silianoff 1981</a>, p. 209.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996426-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996426_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoffmann1996">Hoffmann 1996</a>, p. 426.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997270–272-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997270–272_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, pp. 270–272.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/july-plot">"July Plot"</a>. History.com. 9 November 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210204213551/https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/july-plot">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLoeffel2012" class="citation book cs1">Loeffel, Robert (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YxHxaq6sMroC&q=Sippenhaft&pg=PA148">Family Punishment in Nazi Germany: Sippenhaft, Terror and Myth</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0230343054</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Terentiev V.O. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/posledstviya-pokusheniya-na-gitlera-20-iyulya-1944-g-dlya-vnutrenney-politiki-tretiego-reyha">Consequences of the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944 for the internal politics of the Third Reich</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619172333/https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/posledstviya-pokusheniya-na-gitlera-20-iyulya-1944-g-dlya-vnutrenney-politiki-tretiego-reyha">Archived</a> 19 June 2024 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> // Klio. №5 (209). 2024. P. 59

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Terentiev V.O. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/posledstviya-pokusheniya-na-gitlera-20-iyulya-1944-g-dlya-vnutrenney-politiki-tretiego-reyha">Consequences of the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944 for the internal politics of the Third Reich</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619172333/https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/posledstviya-pokusheniya-na-gitlera-20-iyulya-1944-g-dlya-vnutrenney-politiki-tretiego-reyha">Archived</a> 19 June 2024 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> // Klio. №5 (209). 2024. P. 59

</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> The Gestapo claimed 7,000 arrests. This can be found in <a href="William_L._Shirer" title="William L. Shirer">William L. Shirer</a>'s <a href="Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Third_Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise and Fall of the Third Reich">Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</a>, ch. 29.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Kershaw, Ian. Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis, p. 693.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMetternich,_Tatiana1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Tatiana_von_Metternich-Winneburg" title="Tatiana von Metternich-Winneburg">Metternich, Tatiana</a> (1976). Purgatory of Fools. Quadrangle. p. 202. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0812906918</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-See_Shirer_1070-1071-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-See_Shirer_1070-1071_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-See_Shirer_1070-1071_68-1">b</a> See Shirer 1070–1071.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-RiseFall-69"><a href="#cite_ref-RiseFall_69-0">^</a> William Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Touchstone Edition) (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFest1997289–290-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFest1997289–290_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFest1997">Fest 1997</a>, pp. 289–290.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Plotzensee1.html">"Alleged July Plot Conspirators Executed in Plötzensee Prison"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509185713/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Plotzensee1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHeidekingMauch,_Christof1998" class="citation book cs1">Heideking, Jürgen; Mauch, Christof (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xoTWkzhf2uUC&q=erwin%20planck&pg=PA361">American Intelligence and the German Resistance to Hitler: A Documentary History</a>. Widerstand: Dissent and Resistance in the Third Reich Series (revised ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0813336367</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transworldnews.com/NewsStory.aspx?id=95893&cat=15">Pave the Way Foundation Reveals Evidence of Pope Pius XII's Active Opposition to Hitler</a>, 29 June 2009. Accessed 4 September 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090912042237/http://www.transworldnews.com/NewsStory.aspx?id=95893&cat=15">Archived</a> 6 September 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zenit.org/article-26194?l=english">More proof of Hitler's plan to kill Pius XII: Son of German Intelligence Officer Comes Forward</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100421235726/http://www.zenit.org/article-26194?l=english">Archived</a> 21 April 2010 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Zenit News 16 June 2009

</li>

<li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708124840/http://www.cbcpnews.com/?q=node/9249">Italian newspaper reveals details behind Hitler's plan to kill Pius XII</a> CBCP News 17 June 2009

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Ted Harrison: "Alter Kämpfer" im Widerstand. Graf Helldorff, die NS-Bewegung und die Opposition gegen Hitler. Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1997_3.pdf">45(1997)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408181804/https://www.ifz-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1997_3.pdf">Archived</a> 8 April 2023 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF, 6,5 MB), pp. 385–423.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Forman, Adrian (1993). Guide to Third Reich German Awards...And Their Values (2nd Ed.) San Jose, CA: R. James Bender. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0912138398</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Angolia, John R. (1976). For Führer and Fatherland: Military Awards of the Third Reich (1st Ed.) San Jose, CA: R. James Bender. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2853647">2853647</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hdot.org/en/denial/biographies">Holocaust Denial on Trial: Using History to Confront Distortions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090918111359/http://www.hdot.org/en/denial/biographies">Archived</a> 18 September 2009 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. "Biographies: Otto Remer," (Retrieved 10 April 2009).

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<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7380365.stm">"Hitler plot survivor dies aged 90"</a>. BBC News Online. London. 2 May 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141221/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7380365.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2008.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21760460">"Hitler assassination plotter Von Kleist dies"</a>. BBC News Online. London. 12 March 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240205084217/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21760460">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2024. Retrieved 20 June 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBüchner1991-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBüchner1991_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBüchner1991">Büchner 1991</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERitter1956619-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERitter1956619_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRitter1956">Ritter 1956</a>, p. 619.

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<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich.

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<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMüllerBerndt2006" class="citation book cs1">Müller, Heike; Berndt, Harald (2006). Schloss Cecilienhof und die Konferenz von Potsdam 1945 (German). Stiftung Preussische Schlösser und Gärten. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-910068-16-2</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996351–354-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann1996351–354_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoffmann1996">Hoffmann 1996</a>, pp. 351–354.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuth2005177–178-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReuth2005177–178_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReuth2005">Reuth 2005</a>, pp. 177–178.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckett20146_88-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckett2014">Beckett 2014</a>, p. 6.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirer20111031,_1177-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShirer20111031,_1177_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShirer2011">Shirer 2011</a>, pp. 1031, 1177.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014142–150-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014142–150_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, pp. 142–150.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014139–142-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014139–142_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, pp. 139–142.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014146-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014146_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, p. 146.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014145–146-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014145–146_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, pp. 145–146.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014140-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014140_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, p. 140.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuth2005tbd-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReuth2005tbd_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReuth2005">Reuth 2005</a>, p. tbd.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2009642-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2009642_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2009642_96-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2009">Evans 2009</a>, p. 642.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014152-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014152_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, p. 152.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart2014141,_152-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart2014141,_152_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHart2014">Hart 2014</a>, pp. 141, 152.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuth2005183-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReuth2005183_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReuth2005">Reuth 2005</a>, p. 183.

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<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJones2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Nigel_H._Jones" title="Nigel H. Jones">Jones, Nigel H.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wgj8EWapQYgC&pg=PA261">Countdown to Valkyrie: The July Plot to Assassinate Hitler</a>. Philadelphia: <a href="Casemate_Publishers" title="Casemate Publishers">Casemate</a>. p. 261. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1848325081</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBurleigh2001" class="citation book cs1">Burleigh, Michael (2001). The Third Reich: A New History. Pan Macmillan. p. 521. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-330-48757-3</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Men of 20 July and the war in the Soviet Union. <a href="Hannes_Heer" title="Hannes Heer">Hannes Heer</a>, <a href="Klaus_Naumann_(historian)" title="Klaus Naumann (historian)">Klaus Naumann</a> (eds.): War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, <a href="Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>; New york, Oxford, 2004, 127–145

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<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany Roderick Stackelberg p. 250

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<li id="cite_note-Century_page_134-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Century_page_134_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Century_page_134_104-1">b</a> Christianity and Resistance in the 20th Century: From Kaj Munk and Dietrich Bonhoeffer to Desmond Tutu (International Studies in Religion and Society Series) pp. 134–135, 2008

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<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Christianity and Resistance in the 20th Century: From Kaj Munk and Dietrich Bonhoeffer to Desmond Tutu (International Studies in Religion and Society Series) page 135, 2008

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<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Germany: 1933–1990 – p. 96 Heinrich August Winkler – 2007

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<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Peter Hoffmann, Carl Goerdeler and the Jewish question, 1933–1942, Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2011, xvi. Klaus Jochen Arnold, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeitgeschichte-online.de/sites/default/files/media/20juli_arnold.pdf">Verbrecher aus eigener Initiative? Der 20. Juli 1944 und die Thesen Christian Gerlachs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211105044328/https://zeitgeschichte-online.de/sites/default/files/media/20juli_arnold.pdf">Archived</a> 5 November 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Danny Orbach, "Criticism Reconsidered: The German Resistance to Hitler in Critical German Scholarship", Journal of Military History 75:2 (April, 2011)

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<li id="cite_note-dwelle2014-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dwelle2014_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwelle2014_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwelle2014_109-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dwelle2014_109-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFDittrich2014" class="citation web cs1">Dittrich, Monika (20 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.de/how-traitors-became-heroes/a-17796469">"How traitors became heroes"</a>. <a href="Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150607001219/http://www.dw.de/how-traitors-became-heroes/a-17796469">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2014.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/julyplot.html">"Operation Valkyrie – The "July Plot" to Assassinate Hitler | Jewish Virtual Library"</a>. jewishvirtuallibrary.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161122070025/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/julyplot.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2016. Retrieved 18 November 2016.</cite>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFRitter1956" class="citation cs2"><a href="Gerhard_Ritter" title="Gerhard Ritter">Ritter, G.</a> (1956) [1954], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8jIltgEACAAJ">Carl Goerdeler und die deutsche Widerstandsbewegung</a>, Stuttgart: DVA, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-421-06181-5</bdi></cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchrader2009" class="citation book cs1">Schrader, H. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pvD9PQAACAAJ">Codename Valkyrie: General Friedrich Olbricht and the Plot Against Hitler</a>. Sparkford: <a href="Haynes_Manual" title="Haynes Manual">Haynes</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1844255337</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShirer2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="William_Shirer" class="mw-redirect" title="William Shirer">Shirer, W.L.</a> (2011) [1960]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fpFbuCKOLKwC">The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</a>. New York City: RosettaBooks. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0795317002</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li>Terentiev V. O. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/posledstviya-pokusheniya-na-gitlera-20-iyulya-1944-g-dlya-vnutrenney-politiki-tretiego-reyha">Consequences of the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944 for the internal politics of the Third Reich</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619172333/https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/posledstviya-pokusheniya-na-gitlera-20-iyulya-1944-g-dlya-vnutrenney-politiki-tretiego-reyha">Archived</a> 19 June 2024 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> // Klio. №5 (209). 2024. P. 58 - 65</li></ul>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:20_July_plot" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:20 July plot">20 July plot</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHeinemann2021" class="citation book cs1">Heinemann, Winfried (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110699333/html?lang=en">Operation "Valkyrie": A Military History of the 20 July 1944 Plot</a>. de Gruyter. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110699333">10.1515/9783110699333</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-069947-0</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240145815">240145815</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160405063815/http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/personalsites/Israel-Germany/World-War-2/Pages/20-July-Plot.aspx">German Opposition to Hitler and the Assassination Attempt of July 20, 1944</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SDqOUDNATo">Operation Valkyrie: the Stauffenberg Plot to Kill Hitler (80 min. documentary)</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Adolf_Hitler250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="F%C3%BChrer" title="Führer">Führer</a>

<ul><li><a href="F%C3%BChrerprinzip" title="Führerprinzip">Führerprinzip</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Political views of Adolf Hitler">Political views</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_directives" title="Adolf Hitler's directives">Political directives</a>

<li><a href="List_of_speeches_given_by_Adolf_Hitler" title="List of speeches given by Adolf Hitler">Speeches</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler's_prophecy" title="Hitler's prophecy">Prophecy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mein_Kampf_in_Arabic" title="Mein Kampf in Arabic">in Arabic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mein_Kampf_in_English" title="Mein Kampf in English">in English</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hitlers_Zweites_Buch" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitlers Zweites Buch">Zweites Buch</a></li>

<li><a href="Last_will_and_testament_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler">Last will and testament</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_books_by_or_about_Adolf_Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="List of books by or about Adolf Hitler">Books</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Military_career_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Military career of Adolf Hitler">Military career</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Rise to power</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler_cabinet" title="Hitler cabinet">Hitler cabinet</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li>

<li><a href="Assassination_attempts_on_Adolf_Hitler" title="Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler">Assassination attempts</a></li>

<li><a href="Death_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Death of Adolf Hitler">Death</a>

<ul><li><a href="Conspiracy_theories_about_Adolf_Hitler's_death" title="Conspiracy theories about Adolf Hitler's death">conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places of residence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="F%C3%BChrer_Headquarters" title="Führer Headquarters">Führer Headquarters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Berghof_(residence)" title="Berghof (residence)">Berghof</a> (<a href="Kehlsteinhaus" title="Kehlsteinhaus">Kehlsteinhaus</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reich_Chancellery#New_Reich_Chancellery" title="Reich Chancellery">Reich Chancellery</a> (<a href="F%C3%BChrerbunker" title="Führerbunker">Führerbunker</a> / <a href="Vorbunker" title="Vorbunker">Vorbunker</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Adlerhorst" title="Adlerhorst">Adlerhorst</a></li>

<li><a href="Anlage_S%C3%BCd" title="Anlage Süd">Anlage Süd</a></li>

<li><a href="Felsennest" title="Felsennest">Felsennest</a></li>

<li><a href="F%C3%BChrerhauptquartier_Tannenberg" title="Führerhauptquartier Tannenberg">Tannenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Werwolf_(Wehrmacht_headquarters)" title="Werwolf (Wehrmacht headquarters)">Werwolf</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfsschlucht_I" title="Wolfsschlucht I">Wolfsschlucht I</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfsschlucht_II" title="Wolfsschlucht II">Wolfsschlucht II</a></li>

<li><a href="F%C3%BChrersonderzug" title="Führersonderzug">Special train (Führersonderzug)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian residences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Braunau_am_Inn" title="Braunau am Inn">Braunau am Inn</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> (<a href="Meldemannstra%C3%9Fe_dormitory" title="Meldemannstraße dormitory">Meldemannstraße dormitory</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> (<a href="Adolf_Hitler's_Munich_apartment" title="Adolf Hitler's Munich apartment">16 Prinzregentenplatz</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Obersalzberg" title="Obersalzberg">Obersalzberg</a> (<a href="Kampfh%C3%A4usl" title="Kampfhäusl">Kampfhäusl</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Health_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Health of Adolf Hitler">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Possible_monorchism_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Possible monorchism of Adolf Hitler">possible monorchism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_wealth_and_income" title="Adolf Hitler's wealth and income">Wealth and income</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Religious views of Adolf Hitler">Religious views</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexuality_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Sexuality of Adolf Hitler">Sexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler_and_vegetarianism" title="Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Adolf_Hitler's_personal_staff" title="List of Adolf Hitler's personal staff">Staff</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_bodyguard" title="Adolf Hitler's bodyguard">Bodyguard</a></li>

<li><a href="August_Kubizek" title="August Kubizek">August Kubizek</a></li>

<li><a href="Stefanie_Rabatsch" title="Stefanie Rabatsch">Stefanie Rabatsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinhold_Hanisch" title="Reinhold Hanisch">Reinhold Hanisch</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychopathography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler">Psychopathography</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler's_Table_Talk" title="Hitler's Table Talk">Hitler's Table Talk</a></li>

<li><a href="Paintings_by_Adolf_Hitler" title="Paintings by Adolf Hitler">Paintings</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_50th_birthday" title="Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday">50th birthday</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Naturalization of Adolf Hitler">German naturalization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal belongings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Columbus_Globe_for_State_and_Industry_Leaders" title="Columbus Globe for State and Industry Leaders">Hitler's Globe</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_private_library" title="Adolf Hitler's private library">Private library</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_books_by_or_about_Adolf_Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="List of books by or about Adolf Hitler">Books</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler's_cult_of_personality" title="Adolf Hitler's cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Hitler_in_popular_culture" title="Adolf Hitler in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Killing_baby_Hitler" title="Killing baby Hitler">Killing baby Hitler</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Victory_of_Faith" title="The Victory of Faith">The Victory of Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Triumph_of_the_Will" title="Triumph of the Will">Triumph of the Will</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler%3A_The_Last_Ten_Days" title="Hitler: The Last Ten Days">Hitler: The Last Ten Days</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Meaning_of_Hitler" title="The Meaning of Hitler">The Meaning of Hitler</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler_Diaries" title="Hitler Diaries">Hitler Diaries</a></li>

<li><a href="Moloch_(1999_film)" title="Moloch (1999 film)">Moloch</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler%3A_The_Rise_of_Evil" title="Hitler: The Rise of Evil">Hitler: The Rise of Evil</a></li>

<li><a href="Downfall_(2004_film)" title="Downfall (2004 film)">Downfall</a></li>

<li><a href="Shigeru_Mizuki's_Hitler" title="Shigeru Mizuki's Hitler">Shigeru Mizuki's Hitler</a></li>

<li><a href="Apocalypse%3A_Hitler" title="Apocalypse: Hitler">Apocalypse: Hitler</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hitler_family" title="Hitler family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Eva_Braun" title="Eva Braun">Eva Braun</a> (wife)</li>

<li><a href="Alois_Hitler" title="Alois Hitler">Alois Hitler</a> (father)</li>

<li><a href="Klara_Hitler" title="Klara Hitler">Klara Hitler</a> (mother)</li>

<li><a href="Johann_Georg_Hiedler" title="Johann Georg Hiedler">Johann Georg Hiedler</a> (grandfather)</li>

<li><a href="Maria_Schicklgruber" title="Maria Schicklgruber">Maria Schicklgruber</a> (grandmother)</li>

<li><a href="Angela_Hitler" title="Angela Hitler">Angela Hitler</a> (half-sister)</li>

<li><a href="Paula_Hitler" title="Paula Hitler">Paula Hitler</a> (sister)</li>

<li><a href="Leo_Rudolf_Raubal_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leo Rudolf Raubal Jr.">Leo Rudolf Raubal Jr.</a> (half-nephew)</li>

<li><a href="Geli_Raubal" title="Geli Raubal">Geli Raubal</a> (half-niece)</li>

<li><a href="William_Stuart-Houston" title="William Stuart-Houston">William Stuart-Houston</a> (half-nephew)</li>

<li><a href="Heinz_Hitler" title="Heinz Hitler">Heinz Hitler</a> (half-nephew)</li>

<li><a href="Jean-Marie_Loret" title="Jean-Marie Loret">Jean-Marie Loret</a> (possible illegitimate son)</li>

<li><a href="Blondi" title="Blondi">Blondi</a> (dog)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_streets_named_after_Adolf_Hitler" title="List of streets named after Adolf Hitler">Streets named after Hitler</a></li>

<li><a href="Hitler_and_Mannerheim_recording" title="Hitler and Mannerheim recording">Mannerheim recording</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conservative_Revolution247" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Conservative_Revolution247" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Conservative_Revolution" title="Conservative Revolution">Conservative Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Associated people</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Hans_Bl%C3%BCher" title="Hans Blüher">Blüher</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Freyer" title="Hans Freyer">Freyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Stefan_George" title="Stefan George">George</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Hielscher" title="Friedrich Hielscher">Hielscher</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">E. Jünger</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Georg_J%C3%BCnger" title="Friedrich Georg Jünger">F. G. Jünger</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Klages" title="Ludwig Klages">Klages</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Kommerell" title="Max Kommerell">Kommerell</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Moeller_van_den_Bruck" title="Arthur Moeller van den Bruck">Moeller van den Bruck</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Niekisch" title="Ernst Niekisch">Niekisch</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Otto_Paetel" title="Karl Otto Paetel">Paetel</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Quabbe" title="Georg Quabbe">Quabbe</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_von_Salomon" title="Ernst von Salomon">Salomon</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>

<li><a href="Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Stapel" title="Wilhelm Stapel">Stapel</a></li>

<li><a href="August_Winnig" title="August Winnig">Winnig</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Zehrer" title="Hans Zehrer">Zehrer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="George-Kreis" title="George-Kreis">George-Kreis</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Bolshevism" title="National Bolshevism">National Bolshevism</a></li>

<li><a href="Tatkreis" title="Tatkreis">Tatkreis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major publications</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Reflections_of_a_Nonpolitical_Man" title="Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man">Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man</a> (1918)</li>

<li><a href="The_Decline_of_the_West" title="The Decline of the West">The Decline of the West</a> (1918, 1922)</li>

<li><a href="Preussentum_und_Sozialismus" class="mw-redirect" title="Preussentum und Sozialismus">Prussianism and Socialism</a> (1919)</li>

<li><a href="Storm_of_Steel" title="Storm of Steel">Storm of Steel</a> (1920)</li>

<li><a href="The_Crisis_of_Parliamentary_Democracy" title="The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy">The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy</a> (1923)</li>

<li><a href="The_Outlaws_(novel)" title="The Outlaws (novel)">The Outlaws</a> (1930)</li>

<li><a href="The_Concept_of_the_Political" title="The Concept of the Political">The Concept of the Political</a> (1932)</li>

<li><a href="Revolt_Against_the_Modern_World" title="Revolt Against the Modern World">Revolt Against the Modern World</a> (1934)</li>

<li><a href="On_the_Marble_Cliffs" title="On the Marble Cliffs">On the Marble Cliffs</a> (1939)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="S%C3%BCddeutsche_Monatshefte" title="Süddeutsche Monatshefte">Süddeutsche Monatshefte</a> (1904–1936)</li>

<li><a href="Widerstand_(magazine)" title="Widerstand (magazine)">Widerstand</a> (1926–1934)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="European_New_Right" title="European New Right">European New Right</a></li>

<li><a href="German_Youth_Movement" title="German Youth Movement">German Youth Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Armin_Mohler" title="Armin Mohler">Armin Mohler</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-conformists_of_the_1930s" title="Non-conformists of the 1930s">Non-conformists of the 1930s</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactionary_modernism" title="Reactionary modernism">Reactionary modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plots_and_conspiracies_(List)272" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Plots_and_conspiracies_(List)272" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Plots and conspiracies (<a href="List_of_political_conspiracies" title="List of political conspiracies">List</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before the 16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conspiracies_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Conspiracies in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>

<li><a href="Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Roman Republic (63 BC)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pisonian_conspiracy" title="Pisonian conspiracy">Roman Empire (65)</a></li>

<li><a href="Coup_of_Kaiserswerth" title="Coup of Kaiserswerth">Holy Roman Empire (1062)</a></li>

<li><a href="Zahiri_Revolt" title="Zahiri Revolt">Mamluk Sultanate (1386)</a></li>

<li><a href="Southampton_Plot" title="Southampton Plot">England (1415)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pazzi_conspiracy" title="Pazzi conspiracy">Florence (1478)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Magione_conspiracy" title="Magione conspiracy">Italy (1502)</a></li>

<li><a href="Amboise_conspiracy" title="Amboise conspiracy">France (1560)</a></li>

<li><a href="Surprise_of_Meaux" title="Surprise of Meaux">France (1567)</a></li>

<li><a href="1569_Plot" title="1569 Plot">Sweden (1569)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mornay_Plot" title="Mornay Plot">Sweden (1574)</a></li>

<li><a href="1576_Plot" title="1576 Plot">Sweden (1576)</a></li>

<li><a href="Babington_Plot" title="Babington Plot">England (1586)</a></li>

<li><a href="Tondo_Conspiracy" title="Tondo Conspiracy">Philippines (1587)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>England (1603)

<li><a href="Gunpowder_Plot" title="Gunpowder Plot">England (1605)</a></li>

<li><a href="Army_Plots_(1641)" title="Army Plots (1641)">England (1641)</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnate_conspiracy" title="Magnate conspiracy">Hungary (1670)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conspiracy_of_Macchia" title="Conspiracy of Macchia">Naples (1701)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellamare_conspiracy" title="Cellamare conspiracy">France (1718)</a></li>

<li><a href="Atterbury_Plot" title="Atterbury Plot">Great Britain (1721)</a></li>

<li><a href="1749_Muslim_slave_revolt_plot_in_Malta" title="1749 Muslim slave revolt plot in Malta">Malta (1749)</a></li>

<li><a href="Coup_of_1756" title="Coup of 1756">Sweden (1756)</a></li>

<li><a href="Conspiracy_of_the_three_Antonios" title="Conspiracy of the three Antonios">Chile (1781)</a></li>

<li><a href="Newburgh_Conspiracy" title="Newburgh Conspiracy">United States (1783)</a></li>

<li><a href="Anjala_conspiracy" title="Anjala conspiracy">Sweden (1788)</a></li>

<li><a href="1789_Conspiracy" title="1789 Conspiracy">Sweden (1789)</a></li>

<li><a href="Armfelt_Conspiracy" title="Armfelt Conspiracy">Sweden (1793)</a></li>

<li><a href="Gual_and_Espa%C3%B1a_conspiracy" title="Gual and España conspiracy">Venezuela (1797)</a></li>

<li><a href="Conspiracy_of_the_Machetes" title="Conspiracy of the Machetes">Mexico (1799)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conspiration_des_poignards" title="Conspiration des poignards">France (1800)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pichegru_Conspiracy" title="Pichegru Conspiracy">France (1804)</a></li>

<li><a href="Burr_conspiracy" title="Burr conspiracy">United States (1807)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cato_Street_Conspiracy" title="Cato Street Conspiracy">United Kingdom (1820)</a></li>

<li><a href="Four_Sergeants_of_La_Rochelle" title="Four Sergeants of La Rochelle">France (1820)</a></li>

<li><a href="Septembrine_Conspiracy" title="Septembrine Conspiracy">Colombia (1828)</a></li>

<li><a href="Palmero_Conspiracy" title="Palmero Conspiracy">Philippines (1828)</a></li>

<li><a href="1832_Georgian_plot" title="1832 Georgian plot">Georgia (1832)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="La_Conjura" title="La Conjura">Venezuela (1907)</a></li>

<li><a href="Delhi_conspiracy_case" title="Delhi conspiracy case">India (1912)</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindu-German_conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu-German conspiracy">India (1914)</a></li>

<li><a href="Kornilov_affair" title="Kornilov affair">Russia (1917)</a></li>

<li><a href="Polonsky_conspiracy" title="Polonsky conspiracy">Ukraine (1919)</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_Plot" title="Business Plot">United States (1933)</a></li>

<li><a href="Oster_conspiracy" title="Oster conspiracy">Germany (1938)</a></li>

<li><a href="Rawalpindi_conspiracy" title="Rawalpindi conspiracy">Pakistan (1951)</a></li>

<li><a href="1954-1955_Dhabyani_coup_attempt" title="1954-1955 Dhabyani coup attempt">Abu Dhabi (1955)</a></li>

<li><a href="Bangkok_Plot" title="Bangkok Plot">Cambodia (1959)</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Wilson_conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Wilson conspiracy theories">United Kingdom (1968)</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_Prince_conspiracy" title="Black Prince conspiracy">Libya (1970)</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_571" title="Project 571">China (1971)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moulay_Bouazza_plot" title="Moulay Bouazza plot">Morocco (1973)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Galaxia" title="Operation Galaxia">Spain (1978)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Quartz" title="Operation Quartz">Zimbabwe (1980)</a></li>

<li><a href="1995_Pakistani_coup_attempt" title="1995 Pakistani coup attempt">Pakistan (1995)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="2007_Zimbabwean_alleged_coup_attempt" title="2007 Zimbabwean alleged coup attempt">Zimbabwe (2007)</a></li>

<li><a href="2011_Dhabyani_coup_attempt" title="2011 Dhabyani coup attempt">United Arab Emirates (2011)</a></li>

<li><a href="2012_Ivorian_coup_attempt" title="2012 Ivorian coup attempt">Ivory Coast (2012)</a></li>

<li><a href="2013_Comorian_coup_attempt" title="2013 Comorian coup attempt">Comoros (2013)</a></li>

<li><a href="2016_Montenegrin_coup_attempt_allegations" title="2016 Montenegrin coup attempt allegations">Montenegro (2016)</a></li>

<li><a href="Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">United States (2020)</a></li>

<li><a href="2021_Armenian_political_crisis" title="2021 Armenian political crisis">Armenia (2021)</a></li>

<li><a href="2021_Ukrainian_coup_attempt_allegations" title="2021 Ukrainian coup attempt allegations">Ukraine (2021)</a></li>

<li><a href="2022_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_allegations" title="2022 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état allegations">Democratic Republic of the Congo (2022)</a></li>

<li><a href="2022_Ukrainian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Ukrainian coup d'état attempt">Ukraine (2022)</a></li>

<li><a href="2022_German_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_plot" title="2022 German coup d'état plot">Germany (2022)</a></li>

<li><a href="2022_Brazilian_coup_plot" title="2022 Brazilian coup plot">Brazil (2022)</a></li>

<li><a href="Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> (2023)

<ul><li><a href="September_2023_Armenian_coup_attempt_allegations" title="September 2023 Armenian coup attempt allegations">September</a></li>

<li><a href="November_2023_Armenian_coup_attempt_allegations" title="November 2023 Armenian coup attempt allegations">November</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="2023_Moldovan_coup_attempt_allegations" title="2023 Moldovan coup attempt allegations">Moldova (2023)</a></li>

<li><a href="2023_Sierra_Leone_coup_plot" title="2023 Sierra Leone coup plot">Sierra Leone (2023)</a></li>

<li><a href="2024_Ukrainian_coup_attempt_allegations" title="2024 Ukrainian coup attempt allegations">Ukraine (2024)</a></li>

<li><a href="2024_Armenian_coup_attempt_allegations" title="2024 Armenian coup attempt allegations">Armenia (2024)</a></li>

<li><a href="2024_Tigray_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="2024 Tigray coup d'état">Tigray (2024)</a></li>

<li><a href="2025_Armenian_coup_attempt_allegations" title="2025 Armenian coup attempt allegations">Armenia (2025)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also:  Coup d'état</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105570#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata896" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105570#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata896" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4079553-6">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85061270">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119351855">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119351855">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007294437405171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/cdc6bf2e-bbd6-4def-bbcc-0d819461a4ed">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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